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BVetMed 1 > Locomotion - Bones and evolution > Flashcards

Locomotion - Bones and evolution Flashcards

1
Q

Darwin’s definition of biological evolution.

A

Descent with modification.

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2
Q

Why is a phylogeny with only 2 groups uninformative?

A

All organisms are related, phylogenies are used to demonstrate the relative closeness of organisms and this cannot be seen with only 2 groups.

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3
Q

Definition: Bipedal

A

Habitual locomotion on two limbs.

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4
Q

Definition: Quadrupedal

A

Habitual locomotion on four limbs.

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5
Q

3 uses of phylogenies.

A
  1. Track the pattern of evolution of traits.
  2. Test for convergent evolution.
  3. Examine correlation of trait evolution
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6
Q

Why is understanding the correlations of trait evolution useful in modern vet medicine?

A

It plays a key role in the prediction and understanding of disease patterns, pathogen spread, future potential pathogen evolution etc and hence is important in disease control.

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7
Q

What is anagenesis?

A

Each successive species replaces the previous species, resulting in no change in the number of species present overall.

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8
Q

Is anagenesis a likely theory for speciation?

A

No, as it would require the rapid extinction of the ancestor (previous species).

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9
Q

What is cladogenesis?

A

The splitting of a species’ population which causes speciation to occur differently to each group. Usually occurs due to a physical barrier separating the population and results in additional species and an increase in biodiversity.

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10
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

An event that resulted in a significant shift in the genetic variation of a species.

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11
Q

What is an exaptation?

A

An original adapted trait finds a new purpose which is different to the original need fulfilled by the adaptation.

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12
Q

What four different types of gait can an animal have? (Relating to the selection pressures associated with that animal.)

A

Efficient
Rapid
Adjustable
Reliable

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13
Q

Which animal is an exception to the concept that animals are designed to move according to their needs whilst using the least energy possible?

A

Penguins - they have an inefficient walking gait which causes heat generation to keep their eggs warm.

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14
Q

What is an advantage of being bipedal?

A

Two limbs are free to perform other functions - flight or prehension.

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15
Q

What is prehension?

A

The act of grasping or seizing with a hand (or similarly designed distal limb).

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16
Q

What does a long forelimb, compared to body size, enable? (Think primates.)

A

Brachiation - swinging using alternate thoracic limbs.

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17
Q

What does a long hindlimb, compared to body size, enable?

A

Jumping

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18
Q

What type of motion is demonstrated during slow gaits?

A

Pendulum motion.

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19
Q

How is pendulum motion energy efficient?

A

It cycles KE and GPE.

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20
Q

Give 2 examples of gaits using pendulum motion.

A

Walking

Brachiation

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21
Q

What type of motion is demonstrated during fast gaits?

A

Spring motion.

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22
Q

How is spring motion energy efficient?

A

Compression of the limb during the stance phase of motion allows the storage of energy. This can then be released in the next motion phase, reducing the energy required from muscles.

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23
Q

How is a greyhound’s muscles arranged on the limb to aid their ability to reach such high speeds? And why does this help?

A

The muscles are found on the lateral aspects of the trunk and proximal on the limbs. This helps the greyhound to maintain it’s leg position below the trunk of the dog during turns.

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24
Q

What is a plantigrade?

A

An animal that walks on its digits (phalanges) and metacarpals/tarsals.

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25
Q

What is a digitigrade?

A

An animal that walks on its digits (phalanges) only. Usually only the distal and middle phalanges. The metacarpals/tarsals are always off the ground.

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26
Q

What is an ungulate?

A

An animal that walks on its distal phalange only, usually the nail or similar process of that phalange.

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27
Q

What is the ‘catapult mechanism’?

A

The slow storage of energy due to a large force which then allows the release of that energy to accelerate a small mass rapidly.

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28
Q

During the gallop gait (horse) which part of the motion uses a catapult mechanism and why?

A

Protraction of the forelimb. This is necessary as the muscles cannot contract quickly enough to protract the limb during this gait.

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29
Q

What is bone? What are bones?

A

Bone - type of connective tissue.

Bones - organs made up of bone tissue.

30
Q

What are the constituents of bone (tissue)?

A

Roughly:
65% Mineral (inorganic) compound
35% Organic material

31
Q

What is the main constituent of the organic material in bone matrix?

A

Collagen (type I collagen)

32
Q

What is the main constituent of the mineral material in bone matrix?

A

Calcium hydroxyapetite

33
Q

What are the 5 functions of bones?

A

Levers, Support, Protection, Mineral store, Bone marrow (stem cell) store/producing blood cells.

34
Q

What is the main role of long bones?

A

To provide lever action.

35
Q

What is the main role of short bones?

A

To allow various movements and articulations by forming complex joints.

36
Q

What are the main roles of flat bones?

A

To protect underlying soft tissue and provide large surface areas for muscle attachments.

37
Q

Give an example of irregular bones.

A

Vertebrae, some cranial bones such as the sphenoid bone.

38
Q

What is a splanchnic bone?

A

A bone found in soft tissue, eg. os penis.

39
Q

What is a pneumatic bone?

A

A bone containing many air spaces called sinuses.

40
Q

Which animal group are you most likely to find pneumatic bones in and why?

A

Birds as they make bones lighter, which is necessary for most birds to achieve flight.

41
Q

What is a sesamoid bone?

A

Sesamoid bones are small bones that are embedded in certain tendons and usually related to joint surfaces.

42
Q

Give an example of a particularly large sesamoid bone.

A

Patella.

43
Q

What is the function of sesamoid bones?

A

Their functions probably are to modify pressure, to diminish friction, and occasionally to alter the direction of a muscle pull.

44
Q

In a cross section of the shaft a normal long bone, what 3 layers would you see from the outermost layer inwards?

A

Cortical (compact) bone, trabecular (spongey/cancellous) bone, the medullary cavity (containing bone marrow).

45
Q

The structure of bone tissue is often likened to what? And why does it have that structure?

A

Honeycomb - as it is a strong and stable yet uses as little material as possible to form.

46
Q

What 3 regions are there in a long bone? (Side on view)

A

Epiphysis
Metaphysis
Diaphysis

47
Q

What is the epiphysis? (Long bones)

A

A section of the long bone found at either end of the long bone where the secondary centres of ossification take place. They contain trabecular (spongey) bone and are coated in cortical (compact) bone and articular cartilage.

48
Q

What is the metaphysis? (Long bones)

A

A section of the long bone where the shaft flares (widens) to meet the epiphysis at the epiphyseal plate. It is made of thin cortical (compact) bone surrounding loose trabecular (spongey) bone.

49
Q

What is the diaphysis? (Long bones)

A

A section of the long bone considered to be the main shaft of the bone, at either end it merges into the metaphysis. It is made of thick cortical (compact) bone surrounding trabecular (spongey) bone and has a central medullary cavity.

50
Q

What is different between flat bones and long bones?

A

There is no medullary cavity.

There are 2 layers of compact bone surrounding either trabecular (spongey) bone or air.

51
Q

What is different between short/irregular bones and long bones?

A

There is no medullary cavity.

They develop from only one centre of ossification.

52
Q

What is lamellar bone? (Microscopic structure)

A

Bone tissue that has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets (lamellae) and is mechanically strong.

53
Q

What are the mechanical properties of lamellar bone?

Microscopic structure

A

It is stronger and less flexible than woven bone. It can withstand higher amounts of stress without demonstrating much strain.

54
Q

What does lamellar bone consist of? (9 things)

Microscopic structures

A
  1. Lamellae (in osteon), 2. Interstitial lamellae, 3. Circumferential lamellae, 4. Haversian canals, 5. Volkmann’s canals, 6. Osteocytes, 7. Osteons, 8. Canaliculi, 9. Lacuna.
55
Q

What is a haversian canal?

A

The central canal within a haversian system (an osteon). Haversian canals run parallel to the shaft of the bone and occur in the center of compact bone.

56
Q

What is contained within a haversian canal or volkmann’s canal?

A

It contains blood vessels, connective tissues, nerve fibers and lymphatic vessels.

57
Q

What is a volkmann’s canal?

A

The small channels that transmit blood vessels from the periosteum into the bone. They lie perpendicular to the shaft of the bone and communicate with the haversian canals.

58
Q

What is an osteon?

A

Also known as haversian systems, they are units of structure within mature bone. The systems run parallel to the long axis of bones. .

59
Q

What are lamellae?

A

The thin layers that compile and eventually form bone. In osteons they form concentric rings around the central canal.

60
Q

What is the structure of lamellae?

A

They contain collagen fibers that are arranged parallel to one another within that lamella. However consequential lamellae have their collagen fibres running in opposite directions.

61
Q

Why do collagen fibres run in opposite directions on subsequent lamellae?

A

To resist twisting forces by creating friction.

62
Q

What are interstitial lamellae?

A

Irregular formations of lamellae between osteons.

63
Q

What is a lacuna?

A

A small space containing an osteocyte in bone or chondrocyte in cartilage.

64
Q

What is a canaliculus?

A

Microscopic canals between the lacunae of ossified bone.

65
Q

What is a circumferential lamella?

A

Lamellae that surround large portions of the compact bone layer.

66
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

Cells trapped in the ECM that help to maintain the ECM and perform metabolic processes.

67
Q

What are osteoblasts?

A

Cells that secrete the ECM and are involved in bone formation.

68
Q

What are osteoclasts?

A

Cells that break down the ECM and are involved in bone destruction.

69
Q

Is bone well vascularised?

A

Yes, it is cartilage that is avascular.

70
Q

Where do the nutrient arteries enter bone?

A

Via nutrient foramen in the diaphysis.

71
Q

What is the outer covering/layer of bone?

A

The periosteum..

72
Q

What is the inner layer/covering of bone where the medullary cavity lies?

A

The endosteum.

BVetMed 1 (9 decks)

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