Lit Flashcards
Oral English Culture, Earliest English Poetry
Warrior Culture: poetry reflected the values of a warrior society—loyalty, honor, and vengeance
Religion and Literacy: with Christianization, monks became the primary recorders of oral poetry, leading to the preservation of texts like Beowulf and The Dream of the Rood
Monasteries as Cultural Hubs: monasteries became centers of learning and writing, preserving both Christian texts and pre-Christian oral traditions
Venerable Bede - Ecclesiastical History
English monk, historian, and theologian
“Father of English History” due to his detailed and methodical approach to documenting historical events
written in Latin and consists of five books covering the history of England from the Roman invasion (43 AD) up to Bede’s present day (731 AD)
primarily focuses on the spread of Christianity and the role of the Church in shaping the history and culture of early medieval England
He interprets historical events as part of God’s divine plan
a pioneer in using an AD dating system, helping establish a framework for dating historical events in Europe
Written sources: Gildas’s De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae and Eusebius’s Church History
Other sources: oral and documents from monasteries
cross-referenced these sources and sought to confirm their accuracy, an unusual practice for his time
Caedmon’s Hymn
Written in Old English, though Latin translations by Bede also exist
Bede describes Caedmon as an uneducated herdsman who, through divine inspiration, was gifted with the ability to compose beautiful Christian poetry
one of the earliest known examples of vernacular Christian poetry in England, marking the blending of Germanic oral tradition with Christian themes
The poem glorifies God as the “Shaper of Heaven” and the “Father of Glory,” emphasizing His role in creating the heavens, earth, and everything within them
No rhyme or strict meter
Lines divided into two halves by a caesura (pause)
Heavy use of kennings (compound expressions like “heaven-kingdom’s Guardian”)
The Dream Of The Rood
Rood = cross
surviving in part on the Ruthwell Cross
reflects the fusion of Anglo-Saxon heroic ideals with
Christian theology
Christ is portrayed as a warrior-king who courageously sacrifices Himself in battle against sin
the narrator describes a visionary dream where he sees a majestic and radiant cross (the Rood), adorned with gold and jewels but also marked by blood and suffering - the cross speaks to him
Rood tells how it was once a tree, chosen to bear Christ during His crucifixion, describes Christ as a brave warrior willingly ascending the cross to redeem humanity
Rood shares its own suffering during the crucifixion and its subsequent glorification as a symbol of salvation, calls on the dreamer (and all Christians) to embrace Christ’s sacrifice and seek eternal life
awakened from the vision, the dreamer is inspired to live a more pious life, venerating the cross and anticipating his reunion with Christ in Heaven
paradox of the cross: an instrument of shame transformed into a symbol of victory and salvation
one of the greatest works of Old English poetry
BEOWULF - prologue
The poem opens with a genealogy of the Danish royal lineage, beginning with Scyld Scefing, a legendary king who brought prosperity and unity to his people.
His funeral is vividly described: his body is set adrift in a treasure-laden ship, symbolizing the transience of life and the importance of legacy.
The focus then shifts to his descendants, leading to Hrothgar, a wise and generous king who builds Heorot, a grand mead hall, as a center of community and celebration.
Grendel, a monstrous descendant of Cain, is angered by the joyous celebrations at Heorot. He attacks the hall nightly, killing Hrothgar’s warriors and leaving it abandoned.
The poem emphasizes Grendel’s alienation from society and his opposition to divine order.
Hearing of Hrothgar’s plight, Beowulf, a Geatish warrior renowned for his strength, sails to Denmark with a band of men to aid Hrothgar.
His arrival is marked by ritual exchanges, emphasizing hospitality customs: Hrothgar’s herald questions their intentions, and Beowulf presents himself formally as a hero seeking glory.
Beowulf boasts of his past feats, expressing confidence in defeating Grendel without weapons, as the monster uses none.
Beowulf waits for Grendel in Heorot. The monster bursts into the hall, killing one warrior before Beowulf engages him in a ferocious hand-to-hand battle.
The poet vividly describes the physical struggle, emphasizing Beowulf’s extraordinary strength and courage.
Beowulf tears off Grendel’s arm, mortally wounding him.
Grendel flees to his lair, and Heorot is filled with rejoicing.
Hrothgar praises Beowulf and rewards him with treasures, including gold and a torque.
A scop (bard) sings about creation and other heroic tales, weaving Beowulf’s deeds into the cultural memory of the Danes.
This section highlights the importance of oral tradition in preserving history and heroism.
Grendel’s mother, enraged by her son’s death, attacks Heorot, killing Hrothgar’s advisor, Æschere, and reclaiming Grendel’s arm.
This act disrupts the celebration, forcing Beowulf into a second test of bravery.
Beowulf tracks Grendel’s mother to her underwater lair.
Armed with Hrunting, a sword lent by Unferth, he dives into the mere. The poet’s language here is rich with vivid imagery, depicting the eerie, hostile environment.
In a brutal fight, Hrunting fails, but Beowulf discovers a giant’s sword in the lair, which he uses to kill Grendel’s mother.
He decapitates Grendel’s corpse and returns to Heorot with both heads as trophies.
Beowulf is celebrated again, and Hrothgar delivers a speech on the transience of life and the responsibilities of kingship.
This moment underscores the ephemeral nature of glory and the inevitable decline of all great men.
BEOWULF - themes
Heroic Code and Bravery
- Beowulf embodies courage, loyalty, and physical strength, the virtues of an ideal Anglo-Saxon hero
- His boastful speeches are not arrogance but a social norm, reflecting confidence and inspiring trust
- Grendel and his mother serve as antitheses to the heroic ideal, representing chaos and societal exclusion
Community and Hospitality
- The mead hall (Heorot) is the heart of social and political life, symbolizing unity and prosperity
- Hrothgar’s generosity and leadership are juxtaposed with the isolation of Grendel, emphasizing the importance of community
Gender Roles
- Male characters are defined by their roles as warriors and protectors
- Women, such as Wealhtheow (Hrothgar’s queen), play diplomatic and ceremonial roles, fostering alliances and maintaining harmony
- Grendel’s mother is an exception, embodying a maternal but monstrous and avenging force, challenging gender norms
Mortality and Legacy
- The funeral of Scyld Scefing and Hrothgar’s speeches remind readers of the fleeting nature of life and glory
- Beowulf’s deeds are his attempt to achieve an immortal legacy through fame
Religion and Divine Will
- The poem blends pagan heroic culture with Christian elements, portraying God as a guiding force behind Beowulf’s success
- Grendel is linked to biblical sin as a descendant of Cain, while Beowulf’s victories reflect divine favor
J. R. R. TOLKIEN: BEOWULF: THE MONSTERS AND THE CRITICS
- Tolkien asserts that Beowulf should be treated as a work of art rather than a mere historical or cultural artifact - critics had often dismissed Grendel and the dragon as crude, fantastical elements unworthy of serious consideration - Tolkien refutes this, arguing that the monsters are central to the poem’s meaning
-
CANTERBURY TALES (GENERAL PROLOGUE)
- begins in spring, a time associated with renewal and pilgrimage, narrator reflects on how people long to travel to sacred places, especially to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket in Canterbury
- narrator joins a group of 29 pilgrims at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, near London
- they are all traveling to Canterbury and agree to travel together for safety and companionship
The Host’s Proposal
- The innkeeper, Harry Bailly (the Host), suggests a storytelling competition to make the journey more enjoyable. Each pilgrim will tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two on the way back.
- The Host will judge the tales based on entertainment value and moral instruction. The winner will receive a free meal paid for by the other pilgrims upon their return.
- The group agrees, and they draw lots to decide the order of storytelling.
PILGRIMS
The Knight:
Noble, honorable, and experienced in battle. Represents the ideal of chivalry.
Wears a plain tunic, showing humility despite his high status.
The Squire:
The Knight’s son, a young and flamboyant romantic, more concerned with love and appearance.
The Prioress (Madame Eglantine):
A nun who tries to appear sophisticated and genteel. She is overly concerned with manners and appearance, which contrasts with her religious role.
The Monk:
A man of the church who rejects traditional monastic life, preferring hunting and fine living.
The Friar (Hubert):
A corrupt church official who takes bribes and spends time with wealthy patrons instead of serving the poor.
The Merchant:
A shrewd businessman, concerned with appearances and hiding his financial troubles.
The Clerk (Oxford Cleric):
A poor student devoted to learning and philosophy, spending all his money on books rather than worldly goods.
The Wife of Bath:
A bold, confident woman who has been married five times. She is worldly, wealthy, and knowledgeable about love and relationships.
The Parson:
A virtuous and dedicated clergyman who practices what he preaches. He represents the ideal of Christian behavior.
The Plowman:
The Parson’s brother, an honest and hardworking farmer who lives a humble and moral life
The Miller:
A brawny, coarse man with a loud personality. He cheats his customers by overcharging them for grain
The Pardoner:
A corrupt church official who sells fake relics and indulgences, exploiting people’s faith for profit
CANTEBURY TALES: themes and style
Social Commentary:
Chaucer critiques the hypocrisy and corruption in various social classes, especially the clergy.
Diversity of Perspectives:
The pilgrims represent a cross-section of 14th-century English society, from nobility to peasants, allowing for a wide range of voices and experiences.
Satire and Humor:
Chaucer blends humor with sharp observation, highlighting human flaws while still celebrating individuality.
Human Nature:
The Prologue explores universal human traits, such as ambition, greed, love, and faith.
WIFE OF BATH’S PROLOGUE
The Wife of Bath, named Alisoun, begins with a long, candid prologue in which she discusses her life, experiences, and views on marriage.
Marriage and Authority:
- Alisoun claims authority on marriage due to her experience, having been married five times. She challenges traditional church teachings about marriage, citing Scripture selectively to defend her views.
- She argues that virginity is ideal for saints, but ordinary people, like her, should marry and enjoy physical pleasure.
Power Dynamics in Marriage:
- Alisoun describes her marriages, revealing her cunning in gaining dominance over her husbands.
- She manipulates her older, wealthier husbands to control their money and property.
- Her fifth husband, Jankyn, is younger and abusive. Despite their tumultuous relationship, she deeply loves him. They reconcile after a fight where she gains the upper hand
Feminism and Agency:
The Wife of Bath asserts her independence and embraces her sexuality, challenging the idea that women should be submissive or chaste.
WIFE OF BATH’S PROLOGUE AND TALE
The Knight’s Crime:
- A young knight of King Arthur’s court commits rape, dishonoring himself and the chivalric code.
- Arthur’s queen and her ladies intervene, and the knight is spared execution on the condition that he answers the question:
“What do women most desire?”
The Knight’s Quest:
- The knight searches far and wide, receiving conflicting answers.
- Nearing failure, he encounters an old, ugly woman who promises to help if he grants her a request.
The Answer:
- The knight presents her answer to the court:
“Women most desire sovereignty over their husbands and lovers.”
- The queen and her court agree, saving his life.
The Transformation:
- The old woman demands the knight marry her as payment. Reluctantly, he agrees.
- On their wedding night, the knight is repulsed by her appearance. She offers him a choice:
1) She can remain old and loyal.
2) Or, become young and beautiful but potentially unfaithful.
- The knight gives her the sovereignty to decide, fulfilling her wish.
The Happy Ending:
- The old woman transforms into a young, beautiful, and faithful wife. The couple lives happily, embodying the lesson that mutual respect leads to harmony in marriage.
The Arturian Cycle - generally
Key Works and Authors
Chrétien de Troyes (12th century):
- Often credited with shaping the romance genre.
- Introduced key figures like Lancelot and the Holy Grail.
Geoffrey of Monmouth (Historia Regum Britanniae, 1136):
- Established King Arthur as a central figure in British history.
Thomas Malory (Le Morte d’Arthur, 1485):
- Compiled and unified various Arthurian tales into a cohesive narrative.
Marie de France:
- Wrote lais (short romances) that incorporated Arthurian elements, particularly courtly love.
Key Themes and Motifs
Chivalry and Knighthood:
- Focused on virtues like bravery, loyalty, and courtesy.
- Explored the tension between public duty and personal desires.
Courtly Love:
- Central to many Arthurian romances, depicting love as both ennobling and tragic.
- Often portrayed in extramarital relationships, such as
Lancelot and Guinevere.
Quests and Adventures:
- Themes of individual heroism and spiritual testing, such as the search for the Holy Grail.
Supernatural Elements:
- Magic, prophecy, and mythical creatures (e.g., Merlin, Morgan le Fay, Excalibur).
Christian Allegory:
- Stories often paralleled Christian themes of sin, redemption, and faith.
THE ROMANCING OF THE ARTHURIAN STORY ESSAY (DEREK PEARSELL)
- Chrétien de Troyes as a Pioneer of Arthurian Romance
- Shift from Heroic to Romantic Ideals
- Earlier Arthurian stories focused on tribal warfare, heroic deeds, and the political unity of Britain under King Arthur.
- Chrétien redefined these stories, focusing on:
Individual knights and their quests, rather than Arthur as the central figure.
- Courtly love as a driving force in the narratives, blending adventure with personal and emotional development.
- Themes of chivalry, loyalty, and the moral complexities of love and honor - Major works
- Erec et Enide: Examines the tension between marital love and a knight’s chivalric duties.
- Lancelot, or The Knight of the Cart: Introduces the love affair between Lancelot and Guinevere, showcasing the moral ambiguities of love.
- Yvain, or The Knight with the Lion: Focuses on themes of redemption, friendship, and reconciliation.
- Perceval, or The Story of the Grail: Explores spiritual growth and the quest for the Holy Grail, blending Christian symbolism with knightly ideals.
SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT
- The Green Knight’s Challenge
- The poem begins at King Arthur’s court during a New Year’s feast.
- A mysterious Green Knight, with green skin, hair, and clothing, rides into the hall, challenging anyone to strike him with his axe, provided they accept a return blow in one year and a day.
- Sir Gawain, Arthur’s nephew, volunteers to protect his king’s honor and decapitates the Green Knight. To everyone’s shock, the Green Knight picks up his head and reminds Gawain of their agreement. - Gawain’s Journey
- As the year passes, Gawain prepares to fulfill his promise. He embarks on a journey to find the Green Chapel, where the Green Knight resides.
- Along the way, Gawain faces harsh winter conditions and prays for shelter. He is guided to a magnificent castle ruled by Lord Bertilak and his wife. - The Temptation
- Bertilak proposes a game: he will go hunting each day and give Gawain his catch, while Gawain must give Bertilak whatever he receives in the castle.
- During Bertilak’s hunts, Lady Bertilak attempts to seduce Gawain. Gawain skillfully resists her advances but reluctantly accepts a magical green girdle, which she claims will protect him from harm. Gawain does not reveal the girdle to Bertilak, breaking their agreement. - The Encounter with the Green Knight
- Gawain reaches the Green Chapel, where the Green Knight awaits. The knight feints two blows, and on the third, he nicks Gawain’s neck.
- The Green Knight reveals himself to be Lord Bertilak, transformed by the sorceress Morgan le Fay as part of a scheme to test Arthur’s knights. The nick on Gawain’s neck is a punishment for keeping the girdle. - Gawain’s Shame and Redemption
- Ashamed of his failure to fully uphold his chivalric code, Gawain returns to Camelot wearing the green girdle as a symbol of his imperfection.
