Linguistics (Handouts) Flashcards
The scientific study of language
Linguistics
The science of human speech sound
Phonetics
Three Categories of Sounds
- phoneme
- phone
- allophone
abstract minimal sound unit of a particular language
Phoneme
words that are almost identical except for one sound in the same position (one phonemic difference)
Minimal Pair Technique
Examines the articulatory (vocal) organs and their role in the production of speech sounds
Articulatory Phonetics (production)
Deals with the physical properties of speech sounds as they travel through the air in the worm of sound waves
Acoustic Phonetics (transmission)
Human beings perceive speech sounds through the medium of the ear
Auditory phonetics (perception)
Main Tasks of Phonetics
- Notation
- Description
The system of transcription symbols
Notation (transcribing words)
the description (characterization) of speech sounds
Description
Where to find the vocal tract?
Larynx
Produced by shaping the oral cavity to give the sound a particular color or timbre
Vowel
All vowel sounds are voiced.
True
Vocal chords are vibrated
Voiced
Three Types of Vowels
- Monophthong
- Diphthong
- Triphthong
A single vowel sounds like (i , e , u)
Monopthong
A complex two-vowel sounds like (aI, aU, oy)
Diphthong
A three-vowel sound that glides together (diphthong+monophthong)
Triphthong
Produced with partial restrictions of the vocal tract — can be voiced or vouceless
Consonant
Vocal cords are not vibrated
Voiceless
Place of Articulation
- Bilabial
- Labiodental
- Interdental
- Alveolar
- Palatal
- Velar
- Glottal
[p] [b] [m] [w] — what place of articulation?
Bilabial (lips)
[f] [v] what place of articulation?
Labiodental (lower lip & upper teeth)
[θ- think] [ð-the] what place of articulation?
Interdental (tongue and upper teeth)
[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r] what place of articulation?
Alveolar (tongue & alveolar ridge)
[ʃ-sh] [ʒ- j] [tʃ-ch] [dʒ-zh] [j-ye] what place of articulation?
Palatal (tongue and palatal)
[k] [g] [ŋ- ng] what place of articulation?
Velar (tongue & velum)
[ʔ] [h] what place of articulation?
Glottal (glottis)
Manner of Articulation
- Plosive/Stop
- Fricative
- Affricate
- Nasal
- Liquids
- Glides
(p) (b) (t) (d) (ʃ- sh) (ʒ-j) (k) (g) (ʔ) what manner of articulation?
Plosive/Stop
(f) (v) (θ-think) (ð-the) (s) (z) (h)
Fricative (impeded not blocked — creates friction)
(tʃ-ch) (d͡ʒ-zh) what manner of articulation?
Affricate (blocked then released)
(m) (n) (ŋ) what manner of articulation?
Nasal (through the nose)
(l) (r)
Liquids (some obstruction; not fricative)
w) (j) what manner of articulation?
Glides (always followed by vowel; not found in the end)
The study of the sound system of language
Phonology
A phonological unit consisting of one sound
Syllable
Consonants or consonants blends before the Rime (vowel and consonant)
Onset ex. DOG — Dog
Consists of a nucleus and the consonant following it
Rime/Rhyme
Ex. DOG — dOG
usually a vowel
Nucleus
ex. DOG — dOg
any consonant following a Rime/Rhyme
Coda
ex. DOG — doG
Rime is always there — onset cannot exist
True
Onset and Rime is per syllable.
True
2 sounds are heard
Blend
One sound is heard
Diagraph
A hissing sound (most are fricative)
Sibilant
aspirated or unaspirated words are called
Allophones
Has air when you utter the word
Aspirated ex. Pin
No air when you utter the word
Unaspirated ex. Spin
bushES /ez/ — what phonological conditioning?
Sibilant
catS /s/ — what phonological conditioning?
Voiceless
dogS /z/ — what phonological conditioning?
Voiced
Sound becoming more like another nearby sound
Assimilation
Ex. Input — imput
Two sounds becoming less alike in articulatory or acoustic terms
Dissimilation
Ex. (modular — modulal)
Dropping sounds because it’s identical
Haplology
ex. governor — govenor
removes a weak segment
Deletion
Types of Morphophonemic Process
- Assimilation
- Dissimilation
- Deletion
- Insertion
- Metathesis
Types of Deletion
- Aphaeresis
- Syncope
- Aposcope
Aphaeresis - first
Syncope - middle
Aposcope - last
Ex.
Aphaeresis — know-how
Syncope — handbag-hanbag
Aposcope — Lacoste-Lacos
Inserts a syllable or a non-syllabic segment within an existing string of segment
Insertion
Types of insertion
- Prothesis
- Epenthesis
Prothesis - first
Epenthesis - middle
ex. P — star-estar
E — hamster-hampster
Reorders or reverses a sequence of segments
Metathesis
Ex. Ask-aks
The study of word formation.
Morphology
The smallest meaningful units of language
Morphemes
Basic unit of the word — root word — base form
Lexeme
Physical realizations of morphemes
Morphs
Have a sense in and of themselves (Content Words) — Noun, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs
Lexical Morpheme
Can stand alone as words ex. talk, in, sing
Free Morphemes
No sense in themselves — Function words (Prepositions, Articles, Conjunctions)
Grammatical Morphemes
Cannot stand alone as words; Affixes
ex. Inflections, derivational, zero, empty
Bound Morphemes
Types of Bound Morphemes
Inflectional & Derivational Morphemes
- All are in the form of suffixes
- 8 inflectional affixes
- not affect category
Inflectional Morphemes
Can be prefix or suffix — infinite number — can change syntactic category
ex. Pre-Board, national
Derivational Morphemes
8 inflections in English
- Noun(2) [s, ‘s]
- Modifiers(2) [er, est]
- Verbs(4) [s, ed, en, ing]
Morphemes NOT physically present in the word
Ex. Sheep (still plural)
Null/Zero Morpheme
Present in form but NO actual meaning
ex. factUal
Empty Morpheme
The extension of a morpheme from one syntactic category to another (functional shift)
ex. chair (N) — chair (V)
Category Extension
Changing the syntactic category by adding something (new word, same lexeme)
Ex. beauty (N) — beautiful (Adj)
Derivation
By removing what is mistaken for an affix; change in syntactic form
teacher (N) — teach (V)
Back Formation (Reversal)
A shortened form of preexisting morpheme; No change in syntactic form
ex. Brassiere (N) — bra (N)
Clipped Form (shortening)
Creating a new word by combining two Free morphemes
ex. break+fast = breakfast
Compounding
Towel rack; coffee cup
Ope Compounding
everywhere; greenshouse
Closed Compounding
Twenty-one
Hyphenated Compounding
A part of two preexisting forms
ex. smoke + fog = smog
Blending (Portmanteau)
A brand-new word based on no preexisting morpheme
ex. Xerox; Kodak, Kleenex, dumpster
Root Creation (Coinage)
Forms a word from a proper name
ex. Hamburger from Hamburg City
Proper Name (Eponymy)
forms a word by substituting a common native form for an exotic form with a similar pronunciation
ex. cucuracha (Spanish) — cockroach
Folk Etymology (Borrowing)
Formed from the first letters of each word in a phrase — you can read it
ex. FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency)
Acronym
You can’t read the letters.
ex. DPWH
Initialism
Formed from the name of the first letters of the prominent syllables of a word
ex. Television — TV
Abbreviation
Misspelling and wrong pronunciation
ex. radio pronounced as radiator
Graphophonology
The study of sentence structure and phrases
Syntax
Phrase structure rules
Left to right ordering
Does not express a complete thought — can be realized by a single word
A group of words that does not include a subject and verb
Phrase
A group of words that may contain a subject and a predicate — used as a part of a sentence
Clause
Constituents which may consist of more than one word called phrases
Sentence
It must contain a noun — preceded by a determiner, an adjective phrase, or both — followed by a prepositional phrase
Noun Phrase
ex. The very honest man in the room
What are the functions of a noun?
- Subject
- Vocative
- Direct Object
- Indirect Object
- Subject Noun Predicate
- Object Noun Predicate
- Object of the Preposition
- Appositive
The one being talked about in the sentence — located before the verb
ex. JAKE followed his dreams.
Subject
The one being directly addressed by the speaker — clue (comma)
ex. Can we go now, JAKE?
Vocative
The one that directly receives the action of the verb — answers WHO and WHAT
ex. Froilan watered his LAWN.
Direct Object
The one that indirectly receives the action of the verb — answers TO WHOM and FOR WHOM
ex. The show gave the PEOPLE hope.
Indirect Object
A noun connected to the subject of the sentence by a linking verb — use only BE VERB
ex. We are all LEARNERS.
Subject Noun Predicate
A noun that qualifies, describes, or renames the object that appears before it. — follow after the Direct Object
ex. They elected Ann PRESIDENT.
Object Noun Predicate
What are the tips in identifying DO, IO, SNP, ONP?
- find the subject
- find the verb
- action or be verb? (am, is, are, was, were)
A noun following a preposition — find the preposition
ex. The bag is placed on the TABLE.
Object of the Preposition
The noun that renames another noun right beside it. clue (two commas)
Appositive
It must contain a verb. — followed by a noun phrase, and adjective phrase or neither.
ex. spoke gently to me
Verb Phrase/Verb Complex
What are the five properties of the verb?
- person
- number
- tense
- mood
- voice
Person of the verb
- First (I, We)
- Second (You)
- Third (He, She, It)
Numbers of the verb
- Singular ( with s or es)
- Plural (base form)
Tenses of the verb
- present
- past
- future
Moods of Verb
- Indicative/Declarative
- Interrogative
- Imperative/Command
- Subjunctive
- Exclamatory
Voices of the Verb
- Active
- Passive
Verb Types based on Complement
- Intensive
- Extensive
- also known as Linking Verb or Copula Verb (am, is, are, was, were)
- followed by a subject complement (noun, adjective, prepositional phrase)
Ex. She IS the teacher. She IS cute. She IS in the lobby.
Intensive Verb
Types of Intensive Verb
- Specifying
- Ascriptive
followed by a noun, phrase or clause that identifies the subject noun; reciprocal property
[A=B and B=A]
Ex. She IS the teacher. (A is B)
The teacher IS she. (B is A)
Specifying
Followed by an adjective or indefinite noun that describes the quality of the subject noun.
[A is B but B is not A)
Ex. She IS cute.
Cute is she. xxx (wrong)
Ascriptive
verb that shows what the subject is doing — ACTION VERBS
ex. She EATS apples.
She PRAYS.
Extensive Verb
Two types of extensive verb
- Intransitive
- Transitive
A verb which does not need an OBJECT and COMPLEMENT but it needs an ADVERBIAL (no receiver)
ex. She PRAYS. (no complement)
She PRAYS at the altar. (adverbial)
Intransitive
Two types of Transitive
- Monotransitive
- Ditransitive
A verb which needs a direct object
ex. She EATS apples. (direct object)
Monotransitive
A verb which needs direct and indirect objects.
ex. She GIVES the cat. (IO and DO)
Ditransitive
A verb combined with a preposition or adverb (or both)
ex. The lady is LOOKING FOR her keys.
The arson BURNED the house DOWN.
Phrasal Verb
Three types of Phrasal Verb
- Intransitive Phrasal Verb
- Separable Transitive Phrasal Verb
- Inseparable Transitive Phrasal Verb
Cannot have a direct object after them
ex. The children were SITTING DOWN when Charlie came.
Intransitive Phrasal Verb
Can insert other words into the middle of a separable phrasal
ex. The arson BURNED the house DOWN.
Separable Transitive Phrasal Verb
Cannot insert that direct object into the middle of the phrasal verb
ex. The lady is looking for her keys.
Inseparable Transitive Phrasal Verb
It must contain an adjective — preceded by an adverb or an intensifier.
ex. Very honest
Adjective Phrase
Preposition followed by a noun phrase
ex. In the room
Prepositional Phrase
an adverbial clause, an adverb phrase, or a prepositional phrase
ex. Froilan walked BEFORE THE GUY CAME BACK (adverbial clause)
Adverbials
Two types of Clause
- Independent (main)
- Dependent (subordinate)
A clause that can stand alone — its meaning is complete.
ex. The cat is sleeping.
Independent Clause
A clause that cannot stand by itself — its incomplete meaning.
ex. When the cat is sleeping,
Dependent Clause
A statement that is not complete and it ends with a period.
Fragment
Types of Dependent Clause
- adjective clause
- adverb clause
- embedded clause
modifies a noun or a pronoun by telling what kind of which
ex. I spoke the truth THAT RUINED OUR FRIENDSHIP.
Adjective Clause
Modifies an adjective, a verb, and another adverb
ex. The class concluded AFTER THE SUGGESTIONS WERE ANALYZED.
Adverb Clause
Placed within the main clause in a sentence (inserted)
ex. The farmer sprayed health threatening pesticides, WHICH ARE HARMFUL CHEMICALS, in his farm and it shocked the community
Embedded Clause
Types of Sentences
- Simple
- Compound
- Complex
- Compound Complex
He is cute. (independent clause)
Simple
IC + IC (connected by FANBOYS)
He is cute BUT he smells bad.
Compound
IC + DC
(connected by subordinating conjunction)
He is cute BECAUSE he has a chubby face.
Complex
IC + IC + DC
Although he has no confidence, he is cute and he has a nice character.
Compound-Complex
Syntactic Structures
- Structure of predication
- Structure of Complementation
- Structure of Modification
- Structure of Coordination
Subject + Predicate
ex. The healthy girl ate breakfast, bread and butter.
Structure of Predication
verbal element + complement
ex. ate the food
Structure of Complementation
head word + modifier
ex. Healthy girl
Structure of Modification
equivalent grammatical units (connected by FANBOYS)
ex. bread and butter
Structure of Coordination
What constituent may perform in the sentence
ex. subject, predicate, object, adverbial
Grammatical Function
The name is the syntactical category to which the constituent belongs.
ex. Nouns, pronouns, verbs
Syntactic Categories
The study of the word meaning
Semantics
A potentially infinite set of words with a finite number of semantic features
Lexical Decomposition
meaningless because there is an incompatibility in the meaning of the word.
Anomalous
Three Areas of Semantics (Word)
- Sense
- Reference
- Truth
The study of sense (meaning) can be divided into two areas: Speaker-sense and Linguistic Sense
True
Non- literal (Situationally independent)
ex. Figure of Speech
Speaker-sense (Connotation)
Literal (situationally dependent)
ex. Dictionary (Denotation)
Linguistic-Sense
Lexically ambiguous if it has more than one sense. (More than 2 interpretation)
ex. Jake saw her duck. (A bird or bend)
Ambiguity
Two or identical lexemes have completely different, unrelated meanings.
ex. ball (🏀 or social event)
Homonymy
The meaning of one lexeme is metaphorically extended on the basis of some similarity (the meaning have relationship— same functionality)
ex. Leg (of a man)
Leg (of a table)
Polysemy
Two words are synonymous if they have the same sense
ex. Big and large
Note: no absolute synonyms in any language
Synonymy
Contains the meaning of a more general word — superordinate or hypernym
ex. Tree — oak
Hyponym
Their meanings differ only in the value for a single semantic feature.
Antonymy
3 Types of Antonyms
- Binary Antonyms
- Gradable Antonyms
- Converse Antonyms
pairs that exhaust all linguistic possibilities — no middle ground (either this or that) — no middle ground
ex. Dead and Alive
Binary Antonyms
Opposite end of a continuous dimension — with middle ground
ex. Hot and Cold
Gradable Antonym
Relationship between two items from opposite perspectives (relational antonym)
Ex. Above and Below
Converse antonyms
Concrete/reality present in the Physical world
Reference
The entity identified by the use of a referring expression — noun or noun phrase
ex. Flower
Referent
The set of all potential referents for a referring expression
ex. List of flowers
Extension
A typical member of the extension of a referring expression
ex. Tulips
Prototype
A list of characteristics describing a prototype
ex. Has petals, stalks, leavesa
Stereotype
Two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real-world entity
ex. Mercury and the nearest planet to the sun
Coreference
Linguistic expression following the ANTECEDENT-PRONOUN pattern
Ex. If a MAN has talent and can’t use it, HE’S failed
Anaphora
Refers to other linguistics expression following the PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT pattern
ex. If you want SOME, there’s COFFEE in the pot.
Cataphora
Has one meaning but can refer to different entities — depending on personal, spatial (location), and temporal orientation (time)
ex. And meet ME THERE TONIGHT
Deixis
The study of truth or truth conditions in semantics
Truth
3 types of truth
- Analytic Sentences
- Contradictory Sentences
- Synthetic Sentences
Necessarily TRUE simply by the virtue of the words in it. (True all the time.)
ex. A bachelor is unmarried.
Analytic Sentence (linguistic truths)
One that is necessarily FALSE as a result of the words in them. (False at all times)
ex. A bachelor is a married man.
Contradictory Sentences (linguistic falsities)
Not true or False
ex. Our neighbor is a married man. (It depends)
Synthetic Sentences (empirical truths or falsities)
A sentence that follows necessarily from another sentence
(specific to general)
ex. Maria bought apples.
Maria bought fruits.
Maria bought goods from the . market.
Entailment
Must be assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence.
(Assumed based on a sentence)
ex. Martina no longer writes poetry.
Martina wrote poetry before.
Presupposition
The study of language use (linguistic and physical context.)
Pragmatics
An implied proposition or statement that is not part of the utterance and that does not follow as a necessary consequence of the utterance.
ex. Uncle Chester is coming over for dinner tonight. I guess I’d better hide the liquor.
Possibly: Uncle Chester has a drinking problem.
Implicature
3 important points to note:
The implicature is not part of the utterance, not an entailment—an utterance to raise more than one implicature.
True
The assumption that participants in a conversation are cooperating with each other.
Cooperative Principle
What are the 4 maxims?
- Quantity
- Quality
- Relation
- Manner
give no more or less informative than required in a conversation
Maxim of Quantity
Should be truthful and based on sufficient evidence
Maxim of Quality
Should be relevant to the subject of the conversation
Maxim of Relation
Reasonably clear fashion; not vague, ambiguous, or excessively wordy
Maxim of Manner
Intentional violation of a maxim (Lie)
Flouting
An utterance can be used to perform an act
Speech Acts
Three types of Speech Acts
- Locutionary Act
- Illocutionary Act
- Perlocutionary Act
simply uttering a sentence (what the speaker says)
Locutionary Act
What the speaker does in uttering a sentence
Illocutionary Act
Reaction of the hearers
Perlocutionary Act
Syntactic form of the utterance matches the illocutionary force of the utterance
ex. Keep quiet.
Direct Illocutionary Acts
syntactic form of the utterance does not match the illocutionary force
ex. You might give me a hand with this.
Indirect Illocutionary Acts
