Lifespan Flashcards
Brofenbrenner’s microsystem
Most primary level. Activities, roles, and interactions of an individual in that person’s immediate setting
Brofenbrenner’s mesosystem
Functions as chains in a link; the interrelationships that connect various elements in the microsystem (parent-child conference)
Brofenbrenner’s exosystem
Institutions that influence the child; social settings or organizations beyond the child’s immediate experience that affect the child
Brofenbrenner’s macrosystem
Includes society as a whole; laws, values, and customs of the society in which one lives
Brofenbrenner’s chronosystem
Includes the passage of time and events in history; the ways in whch all of these systems interrelate to each other across time
Vygotsky’s social-cognitive view of development
The suggestion that culture greatly influences learning
Leading causes of death for infants
Commonly connected with problems surrounding birth and congenital abnormalities
Leading causes of death for adolescents
Accidents, homicides, and suicides
Leading causes of death for young adults
HIV infections, accidents, and cancers
Leading causes of death for those aged 45-64
Chronic disease
Leading causes of death for those 65+
Heart disease, cancers, and CVAs or strokes
Damage theories of aging
These theories highlight a number of random processes that cause the deterioration of cells and organ systems
Other names for Turner X Syndrome
Bonnevie-Ullrich Syndrome or Monosomy X
Klinefelter Syndrome
XXY. Men with syndrome tend to be talker, somewhat lower IQ, smaller testicles and sterile
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Deletion or mutation of 15th chromosome. Problems with hypothalamus, regulation of food and hunger. Sx include insatiable hunger, delayed motor skills and cognitive abilities, low muscle tone, short stature, and incomplete sexual development.
Achromatopsia
Disease where the person is not able to distinguish any color at all
Genotype
Characteristic, may be observable or not (carried on the genes)
Phenotype
Observable traits (hair color, height, personality)
Fragile X Syndrome
X-linked condition; causes mental retardation, and in milder forms, can cause learning and emotional problems without significant cognitive deficits
Infants born before _____ week-gestation period is considered preterm.
37th
Full-term infant who is low birth weight is considered:
small for date
Robert LeVine
Developed the idea that, universally, parents have three broad goals that are hierarchical; these include the survival goal, economic goal, and self-actualization goal.
Germinal phase
First two weeks following conception. Teratogens may prevent zygote from attaching to uterine wall
Embryonic period
2-8 weeks following conception. Critical period of development and structural damages are most likely to occur during this time if an embryo is exposed to teratogens
Fetal period
2 mths past conception until child is born. Critical period of organ development.
Colors infants see best
White, green and red. At four months can see many more colors
Infants prefer _______ visual stimuli and at _____ can distinguish mother’s face
face-like, 1 mth
First sense to develop
Touch
Infant perception
Except for vision, most infant senses are well developed at birth.
Infants and taste
Can distinguish four basic tastes (sweet, salty, bitter, and sour) and sensitive to umami. Show preference for sweet and umami.
Infants and hearing
Well developed at birth, better than vision. At birth can distinguish between new sounds and familiar sounds. From birth to 7 mths, start narrowing down sounds to own native language.
Kinetic vision
1 mth: the ability to distinguish three-D pic from its surrounding. At 2 mths, still lacks depth perception
Binocular vision
3 mths: able to use both eyes to perceive one visual stimulus. Color perception poor until about 4 mths.
Pictorial vision
5 mths: Infant recognizes depth in 2-D figures, such as photographs. Before 5 mths, infants can’t reliably turn their heads either.
Social smile
A smile formed in reaction to external situation
Moro reflex
Extending the legs, arms, and fingers, and arching the back in response to being startled.
Suicide among adolescents
Third leading cause of death. Boys more likely to be successful, girls are more likely to attempt. American Indians/Native Alaskans who are non-hispanic more likely to be successful. Hispanics more likely to attempt. Risk factors include previous tempts, depression, psychiatric prob, stressful life events, access to and use of firearms, drugs and alcohol.
Self-efficacy
Refers to what a person believes he or she is capable of doing in a given situation
Adolescent marijuana use
Most widely used drug in the US. 2003 survey of 50,000 students revealed that approx. 50% of highs school seniors admitted to having used in previous year.
Adolescent tobacco use
60% of regular smokers began using before age 14. 90% before age 19.
Adolescents and alcohol
Use of all drugs increases between ages 18-25. Alcohol most common risky behavior and biggest prob in college campuses. 75% have had at least one beverage in last 30 days. CNS depressant.
Undersocialized adolescents
Tend to do poorly in school and are often rejected by their peers.
Contributing factors for adolescent delinquency
Lack of positive role models, environmental stress, peer pressure, identity issues, family problems. Antisocial behavior associated with parenting styles that are: permissive, uninvolved, inconsistent in discipline, lacking in positivity, lacking in supervision. Parental support and monitoring key in keeping youth from criminal activity.
Computer based education
The application of computers in the process of education.
Computer-managed instruction
(CMI) Educators use of computers to keep track of students’ progress or to grade assignments.
Computer assisted instruction
(CAI). Use of computers to enact drills, tutorials, and simulations for educational purposes. Students tend to retain info better, learning rate tends to be faster, tend to create longer and better writing samples, better awareness of writing style, report experience as fun and impartial. Computers are non-judgmental, can be programmed for praise, and eliminate public embarrassment. Younger students tend to benefit most, higher achieving to lesser degree.
Weiner’s Orthogenic Principle
The idea that development progresses from global and undifferentiated states to more differentiated and integrated patterns of response.
Categorical Distinction: 18-24 mths
Infants begin to recognize themselves visually as distinct individuals. Michael Lewis and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn: the rogue experiment. Categorical self: infants have an awareness of who they are as a physical self with a unique appearance and age and gender category. Become aware of race for the first time by 3-4 years of age.
Categorical Distinction at 18 mths
Infants can begin to recognize themselves in the mirror
Categorical Distinction 9 mths or older
Infants begin to realize that they are separate beings from their companions and that they have different perspectives that can be shared. Joint attention: describes infants and their caregiver’s shared perceptual experiences when they look at the same thing at the same time.
Categorical Distinction 2-3 mths
Develop capacity to differentiate themselves from the world, discover things about their physical selves and distinguish themselves from the rest of the world, understand that they can act upon other people and objects.
Infants categorical distinction
Develop an implicit sense of self through the perceptions of their bodies and actions
Dyspraxia
A condition characterized by difficulty with motor skills, including the use of facial muscles to produce speech.
Visual neglect
A condition in which a reader neglect reading a portion of a word, due to visual impairment.
Semantic Dyslexia
Poor performance on tests of rapid automatic naming. Difficulty with word retrieval.
Phonological Dyslexia
Difficulties with word attack skills including phonetic segmentation and blending. Poor non word reading skills; for ex., inability to decipher invented words with no real meaning used to test phonetic skills. Spelling is inconsistent with bizarre letter combinations.
Surface dyslexia
Good ability to sound out words, but read very laboriously. Difficulty learning to recognize whole words visually. Probs deciphering words that do not follow regular grammar rules (skul for school)
Dyslexia
60% of children with dyslexia have phonological dyslexia. 10% have surface dyslexia. 30% have a combination of forms and symptoms.
Attention skills - math disorder
Involve copying figures correctly and observing operational symbols correctly
Perceptual skills - math disorder
The ability to recognize and understand symbols and order clusters of numbers.
Linguistic skills - math disorder
Understanding mathematical terms and converting written problems into mathematical symbols.
Reading disorder
Dx. made after collection data from standard IQ test and educational assessment of achievement. Approx. 60-80% males. Males with condition more disruptive than females. When attn given to both, males and females have comparable rates. Usually dx when child enters kindergarten or first grade. Higher IQ = later dx. LD children do not reach normal levels later.
Montessouri Teaching Method
Dr. Maria Montessori, Italian physician and educator. Learning is related to sensory perception. Children educated through guidance from teachers and fellow students. Children start as being the “student” then teach others. Not pushed to excel, but encouraged to perform @ potential. Initially developed to assist with MR. Effective in general education.
Need for affiliation
Need for a sense of belonging and approval in social group that may affect one’s performance.
Gender and student achievement
Both female and male teachers have greater degree of interaction with male students, thought these interactions tend to be more negative or critical. Both female and male teachers praise females for effort and cooperation, while they praise males for ability and achievement.
Achievement motivation (school)
Learned drive that involves a student’s persistence toward success and excellence. Influenced by culture and family values.
Success in school
Influenced by many factors, including parental support, anxiety, and locus of control. Measured by level of performance that is expected of a student.
Rosenthal effect is AKA:
Pygmalliaon effect or teacher-expectancy effect
Marcia’s identity achievement
Actively struggled and explored several options and then developed his own goals and values. Adolescent has resolved the crisis and made a commitment.
Marica’s moratorium
Has not yet made a definite commitment and is in the active process of struggling with the decision, and exploring interests and needs. Person is in crisis, with an absence of commitment.
Marica’s foreclosure
Aaccepts ready made identity chosen by an authority figure. Absence of crisis for the adolescent, yet a commitment has been made.
Marcia’s Identity Diffusion
Lacks direction, is not committed to goals and values, and is not seriously considering options or trying to develop goals. Both crisis and commitment are absent.
Secondary Aging
Results from disease, disuse, and neglect of the body. May account for much of the deterioration typically associated with growing old.
Primary aging
Upper limit on human life span thought to be due to primary aging, the inevitable changes in physical and mental processes. Explanations for primary aging include programmed theories which hold that aging is genetically controlled, and the wear and tear theory which holds that daily stressors wear out the body’s cells.
Tom Smith
Conducted survey of representative adults in America. Found that percentage of adults with at least some sexual contact declined steadily from age group to age group; however, almost 1/3 of adults in 70s and older were still sexually active.
Rutter’s Resilience
Some children more resilient. Resilient children have: dispositional attributes, family characteristics, and availability and use of external support system by family members. These children have easy temperament, at least avg IQ, and self-efficacy. Family have close emotional tie, w/adult member or an organized family with routines and clear expectations. Girls at lower risk for poor adjustment.
Origins of Rutter’s indicators of adversity
Families on Isle of Wight and inner bough of London. Risks factors w/in family correlated significantly w/childhood mental disturbances. Low SES, criminality of father, overcrowding, maternal psych, chronic marital discord, and institutional care (foster care).
Richard Ferber
Known for parenting technique to aid children in going to sleep. Applied to children 4-6 months of age. Babies should be emotionally and physically capable. Parents teach child to self-soothe and fall asleep. “Progressive Waiting” where parent gradually increases wait time before comforting baby, comfort baby without holding, and eventually baby falls asleep on own.
Adult reactions to death
Middle adulthood - tend to develop fear of death that is stronger than it had been in early adulthood. Late adulthood - less afraid of death and have more contemplative, realistic perception about the subject.
Adolescent reactions to death
Able to speak about death in abstract ways. Tend to believe they are invincible to death.
Children’s reactions to death
First develop understanding of death around age 5. Prior to then, believe death is temporary (like sleep). May believe they were the cause. By age 9, gain an understanding of finality of death. (Coincides with Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage). Parents should be honest and use age-appropriate language.
Ethnic Perspective Taking Ability (EPTA)
Awareness of one’s own race and ethnicity. Children advance through 4 stages. Level 0: Presechool, have capacity to notice differences in ethnicity based on physical differences. By age 4, favorable attitudes toward own group. Stage 1: 5-9 yrs old, gain ability to notice and describe qualities of ethnicity (food, language). Stage 2: 7-12, consider how others might view them, such as prejudice. Stage 3: 10-15, understand ethnicity more in depth and surround selves with own culture.
Chess and Thomas’ Parenting Styles Model
Identified 6 parenting styles based upon the behaviors that the parent brings to the child-rearing task from those that are a response to a child’s behavior; those parent types include secure, insecure, intimidated, over-interpretive, victimized, and pathological.
Authoritative parenting
High degree of warmth, acceptance, and encouragement of autonomy with firm but flexible control. These children are self-reliant, friendly, and confident.
Authoritarian parenting
Highly controlling, show little warmth, ad adhere to rigid rules. Children contribute little to family decision-making process. Their children have difficulty making decisions, considering their parents made all of their decision for them.
Permissive parenting
Exercise little control over their children but are high in warmth. These children tend to show little self-discipline.
Coregulation
The experience of school-aged children sharing control of their behavior with their parents; for example, at this age, children are able to make independent choices about what lunches they buy at school; their parents can make suggestions, but the children have increased choice.
Sibling rivalry
Vary widely, can be loving or conflictual. Helpful in identifying and learning social concepts. Begins early in life, may be related to competing for parent’s attention, may be related to birth order, older children may get more attention or favoritism. Parents may show differences in treatment of family roles. Children of same age and gender tend to be more quarrelsome. With age, more egalitarian.
Reciprocal socialization
The process of children and parents interacting and simultaneously shaping and socializing one another.
Step-families
Reconstituted families usually the result of marriage-death-remarriage. Approx. 50% of divorced individuals w/children remarry within 4 years. Stepparents tend to have extreme forms of parenting shortly after remarriage. Young girls tend to be most oppositional toward parent’s remarriage. Boys tend to fare better with stepparents than girls do. Most children become well-adjusted adults.
Secure base
An infant’s point of safety, represented by their attachment figure, that allows them to explore the environment.
Social Convoy
A core group of significant people who are a source of social support to an individual throughout their life.
Maternal employment
Children of working mothers tend to have more egalitarian view. Middle-class boys of working moms have slightly lower academics than those with non-working moms, but lower-class do better academically than those with moms at home. Lack of supervision is a negative.
Parental imperative
The concept that men and women take on specific roles and psychological characteristics in response to the demands of parenthood.
Children in single-parent homes
Tend to demonstrate lower levels of achievement. Lower achievement may be associated with the effects of low family income or poverty.
Divorce hangover
Occurs when men and women have a difficult time creating new relationships and ending their focus on their past marriage.
Sleeper effect
Girls may demonstrate a delay in developing psychological probe related to parent’s divorce. Children need about 2 years post divorce to adjust.
Children from divorced families
More likely to: poorer academically, conduct probe, develop depression and anxiety, increased risk of dropping out, drug use, low self-esteem. Most, however, do not develop these issues. Reactions largely based on temperament and personality. Greatest impact on kindergarten through high school. Children in homes where parents argue constantly have similar results.
Impact of divorce
Experienced by both genders. Couples with children: women more likely granted custody and financial responsibility. Women tend to be paid less than men and fathers typically contribute less financially after a divorce. Women are less likely to remarry than men. Typically, following divorce, lower levels of life satisfaction for 2-3 years.
Divorce rates around the world
Sweden highest at 54%. US 50%. Lower in Canada, Austria, France, and Germany with India being the lowest at 1.1%..Causes of divorce: infidelity, incompatibility, driving or drug use, and emotional distancing.
Gottman and Levinson on Divorce
93% accuracy based on presence of contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling (withdrawing from interacting with spouse). Couples with higher negative interactions more likely to divorce.
Milestones of emotional development
Early childhood (6-9): self-esteem developing. Children begin to care about what peers think. Middle childhood (10-12): Social skills emerging and some children become overly concerned with weight and appearance. Early teens (13-15): Attempting to establish own identities and wants acceptance from peers. Late teens (16-18): becoming independent and exploring different roles, looks, values, lifestyles and friendships. Begin to form own values and standards.
Synchrony
The back and forth interaction between an infant and caregiver
Discrepancy Hypothesis Cognitive Theory
Around 7 mths, infants acquire schemas for familiar objects. When a new image of object is presented that differs from old one, the child may experience uncertainty and anxiety. Stranger anxiety results when infant develops object permanence.
Stranger anxiety
Fear of strangers or separation from caregiver. Develops around 8-10 mths and continues throughout first year with gradual decline in second year. Linked with developmental task of distinguishing familiar from unfamiliar and begins shortly after infants have clearly formed first attachments. Varies from child to child and normal part of development.
Parenting and temperament
Influences conscience. Degree of a child’s anxiety in their temperament mediates the relationship between parental discipline and the development of conscience.
Perry, Perry, and Ramussen on aggression
(1986). Focused on family interactions and aggressive behavior in children. Parental rejection and use of peer-assertive discipline. Aggressive children had higher levels of self-efficacy in performing aggressive acts than other children.
Patterson’s Coercion Model of Aggression
Aggressive behavior learned from the social modeling of parents. Cycle begins with the child first resists a request made by parents. Parents escalate request and become frustrated –> further noncompliance by child –> parents relent and withdraw request –> child learns resistance and coercive behaviors are powerful then transfers these behaviors to others (leading to rejection of child).
Abnormal aggression develops from
Linked to parental hostility and a lack of warmth and disorganized attachment pattern
Age changes and social referencing
Younger infants: More likely to continue looking at the mother if she expressed positive emotions. Older infants: Looked longer when mother expressed apprehensive or negative responses. Infants 14-22 mths: fearful expressions by parent decreased likelihood of playing with unfamiliar toy. Infants approaching 2 years: fearful expression had opposite effect.
Social referencing
Emotional expression limited at birth to distress, contentment, or interest (at 6 mths, now have happiness, sadness, and disgust.) Social referencing: subtle emotional signals, usually from parent, that influences infant behavior. Common before one year of age.
Prolonged Separation
According to Bowlby, a child’s reaction to prolonged separation from a primary caretaker involves three stages: protest, despair, and detachment.
Mary Ainsworth
Suggested that the attachment relationship between infant and caregiver begins at birth, developed the “Strange Situation” experiment and identified three main patterns of attachment.
John Bowlby
Formulated attachment theory and proposed that newborns are biologically equipped with both verbal and non-verbal behaviors that function to elicit instinctive nurturing responses from the caretaker.
Harry Harlow
Studied monkeys reared with wire surrogate mothers and terry cloth surrogate monkeys. Contact comfort: the importance of pleasurable tactile sensation as a contributor to attachment behavior.
Learning theorists and attachment
Describe attachment as a result of reinforcement. Of all theories, learning theory has the most support.
Erikson and attachment
The first year of life represents the stage of “trust vs. mistrust”, a critical period in the development of attachment.
Freud and attachment
Infant attachment is directly related to oral satisfaction
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Moral Development
Gilligan claimed women don’t develop the same way and focus instead on relationships. She proposed 3 levels of female moral development (1. focus on self, excluding others, 2. focus on others, excluding self, 3. focus on everyone). *Some critics say this is the same as Kohlberg’s. Other criticism - no focus on cultural differences and underestimated morality of young children.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development - Observations
Stage dvpmt progresses in sequential and invariable fashion. Higher stages not comprehended by people not there yet. People are cognitively attracted to the moral level above the one they are currently at. Cognitive disequillibrium promotes upward movement. A person can be physically mature but not reach moral maturity.
Post-Conventional Level of moral reasoning
Kohlberg’s third and final level. Age: Middle age and up. Focus on justice, dignity for all life, common good. Stage 5: Abide by the laws of the land for the community’s welfare. Stage 6: Abide by universal ethical principles, which may or may not conform to society’s laws or expectations.
Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg’s Level 2 and based on social conformity. Age: from middle school to middle age - most people stop developing here. Focus is on significant others setting rules about how one should behave. Stage 3: Conform to win approval of others. Stage 4: Conform to avoid disapproval or dislike of others.
Pre-Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg’s first level, based on punishment and rewards. Age: up to 10-13, most prison inmates. Stage 1: Obey rules to avoid punishment. Stage 2: Obey the rules to obtain favor.
Kohlberg’s Gender Stages
Gender Labeling Stage: (2-3 yrs old) Child learns to identify his/her sex. Gender Stability Stage: (preschool) Child learns gender is stable, i.e., boys become men and girls become women. Gender Constancy Stage: (4-6) Children further learn gender is stable, i.e., if boy wears a dress he is still a boy.
Kohlberg’s GID
The psychological impression a person has that they are male or female. Lawrence Kohlberg said that children go through stages where they learn what behaviors are socially acceptable for males and females and also identify themselves with a gender.
Gilligan’s 3 levels of moral development
Progressing from care of self, care of others, care of everyone including self.
Gilligan’s central moral dilemma
Faced by women, the conflict between their own needs and the needs of others. Women think more about responsibilities to specific people rather than abstract justice and fairness (like men)
Carol Gilligan
Challenged Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Said his theory had a bias because he doesn’t account for relationships and emotional bonds. Women have different moral and psychological tendencies. Men prefer the justice perspective (fairness), while females prefer caring perspective.
Scores on social readjustment rating scale
Less than 150 is considered minor stress; 150-199 is mild stress; 200-299 is moderate stress; 300 is major stress. 35% of those who score under 150 experience illness or accident within two years. 150-300 = 51% and scores more than 300 have 80% chance. (Holmes and Rahe)
Identity balance
Seeks to use both assimilation and accommodation in balance. *Person may change when presented with new information.
Identity accommodation
Seeks to change beliefs to accommodate new information
Identity Assimilation
Seeks consistency and looks for information to support beliefs
Identity Process Theory
Individual may experience more identity formation during early adulthood. Involves three processes: assimilation, accommodation, balance.
Scenscense
Aging; to be old
Kwashiorkor
Type of severe malnutrition caused by insufficient protein. Can lead to permanent brain damage.
Maramus
Type of malnutrition cause by a severe insufficiency of total calories. Children weigh less than 60% of recommended weight for age. Co-occurs with parasitic infections and chronic diarrhea making it difficult to treat. Can lead to permanent brain damage.
Micronutrient malnutrition
Deficiency of certain vitamins and/or minerals; common among the poor, but present in all economic levels; when insufficiencies lead to iron-deficient anemia and social and language development may be impeded. Iron supplements can improve social development, but does not show an affect on language, thus damage may be permanent.
Macronutrient malnutrition
Results from a diet that contains too few calories. Leading cause of death for children under age 5. Most harmful during sensitive period of development; developing fetus through age 2.
Babinski reflex
Characterized by the baby spreading out the toes and twisting the foot when the sole of the baby’s foot is stroked.
Infant Vision
Not well developed at birth, but develops rapidly between 2 and 10 weeks. Peripheral vision very narrow. Vision develops in the following order: Kinetic, binocular, pictorial.
Effects of premature birth
Difficulties that can lead to probe later in life such as delays in social skill dvpmt and bx probs in school. Longitudinal study showed that mothers with most vulnerable infants were able to produce more positive roles about parenting role. By age 2, these children reach dvmpt status comparable to full-term but reach by different means.
Premature infant development
Premature birth is a risk factor associated with prenatal development. The most common cause for prematurity is multiple births. Other causes: disabilities of fetus, maternal disease, maternal smoking or other drug use, and malnutrition. Low Birth Weight (LBW) most common indicator of prematurity.
Rods
Photoreceptors cells in the retina; the rods are able to function with less light than the cones and do not play a role in color blindness.
How does color blindness occur?
there is a prob with color-sensing materials in certain nerve cells (cones). There is a color pigment missing or defective. Results from mutated recessive gene on X chromosome.
Levinson’s Middle Adulthood
Men aged 40-65. Involves change in perspective from “time since birth” to “time left to live.” Person begins to relinquish perspective of early adulthood and may make more adjustments as a result of this change in perspective. Midlife transition - looking at the life lived, adn evaluation when entering this decade of life.
Levinson’s Early Adulthood
Men age 17-45. Person starts to change sense of self that he developed in childhood, and beings to make some tentative choices about life as an adult. Entering adult world - consolidate choices made earlier. Age 30 transition - establishing patterns of adult life which include choices made before settling down. Settling down - person has settled into commitments as an adult.
Levinson’s Pre-adulthood
Men from birth to 22 years old. Identity formation and separation from family of origin.
Levinson
Developed “Seasons of a Man’s Life”. Alternating periods of transition and stability. Based on interviews with 40 men who held professional jobs. Criticized for excluding persons of lower socioeconomic status and for excluding women and their development.
Power envy
Karen Horney - Power is what women really envy of men (to replace Freud’s penis envy).
Womb envy
Karen Horney - Male’s jealousy of the female’s ability to give birth.
Frued’s Phallic phase
Children become more aware of gender differences. Oedipal Complex and Electra Complex. (Electra Complex was not Freud’s idea)
Anal phase
Issues of control central importance. Toilet training most significant factor during this stage. Anal retentive = obsessive-compulsiveness. Anal expulsive = messiness.
Oral Phase
Self is separate from outer world. Mouth used to explore world. Orally fixated adults = immature and passive (smoking habits, overeating and alcoholism).
Freud’s psychosexual stages
- Oral phase (birth-1 year)
- Anal Phase (1-3 years)
- Phallic Phase (3-6 yrs)
- Latency Phase (6-12 yrs)
- Genital Phase (12 and up)
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Erikson’s eighth stage. Draws from memories, regrets, legacy, and relationships with important other across life. Crisis between a sense of life well lived and a deep sense of loss. Success = wisdom and acceptance of death. Failure = helplessness and pain in facing dying.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson’s seventh stage. Draws from relationships with co-workers, neighbors, and family. Crisis between sense of being productive and feeling as if one has nothing to contribute. Success = generosity. Failure = emptiness.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson’s sixth stage. Draws from relationship with spouses, friends, and lovers. Crisis between closeness to others and vulnerability as a result. Success = deeply fulfilling relationships with others. Failure = loneliness.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson’s fourth stage. Draws from relationships with teachers and peers in school and other community figures. Crisis between feeling competent and worrying over inadequacy. Success = sense of self as capable. Failure = paralyzing low self-esteem.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson’s third stage. Draws from relationship with family. Crisis between having fortitude for what one wants or feeling guilty for doing so. Success = regard for the rights and feelings of others. Failure = self-centered decision making and rejections by others.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Erickson’s second stage. Draws from relationship with caregivers during toddler years. Crisis between independence and dependency for decision making. Success = ability to be self-directed. Failure = pervasive dependency on others.
Trust vs. Mistrust
Erikson’s first stage. Draws from relationship with primary caregiver during infancy. Crisis between seeing existence as reliable or untrustworthy. Succesful resolution = optimism. Failure leads to pervasive suspicion.
Aschematic
Bem: Those who attribute few masculine and feminine characteristics to themselves.
Sex-typed
Bem: People who readily categorize information by gender classification in a manner popular with their culture. On the other hand, someone who attributers both masculine and feminine qualities to the self would be androgynous. Bem thought parents could teach androgyny to avoid stereotyping.
Sandra Bem’s Gender Schema Theory
People vary in the degree that they process information relative to gender, according to gender-steryotypes.
Gender schema - Cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender (ex. cars are masculine, dolls are feminine). Organizing play according to gender would involve useing gender schema.
Formal operational
Piaget (11 to adulthood): Ability to use symbols to think in abstract concepts. Temporary return to egocentric thi8ning. Most often fully achieved only in adulthood.
Concrete operational
Piaget (7-11). Thinking becomes reversible, less egocentric and de-centered. Engages in games with rules, enhancing social development. Develops ability to conserve in 7 ways (lenght, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume). Ability for seriation (arrange according to size, shape, etc) and classification (grouping into classes and characteristics). Manipulation of symbols for concrete applications. Play (toward end of stage) games of construction. Moral Development - Autonomous from 7-8 yrs on - rules made by people, therefore alterable. Intentions of actor most important in determining punishment.
Preoperational
Piaget (2-7): Acquires more symbolic ability through language, egocentric, non-reversible thinking, centration (focus on one aspect of figure), magical thinking (paper plane can fly), and animism (objects endowed with life-like characteristics), unable to conserve. Play is symbolic play (express self by symbols other than language). Moral development phase: heteronomous (4-7) and rules are unable to change, punishment fits the crime, intentions of actor irrelevant.
Seonsori-motor stage
Piaget (0-2): largely pre-symbolic, child interacts with physical world and gains object permanence. Toward age 2 - learning to speak, gaining ability to use symbols. Play characterized as exercise play: pre-symbolic, repetitive play that is simply pleasurable to child.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Sensori-motor (0-2 years)
Pre-Operational (2-7)
Concrete Operational (7-11)
Formal Operational (11 to adulthood)
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The hypothesis that thoughts and behaviors are influenced by language. Language’s specific nature significantly influences the routine thought of its speakers. “Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis”. Language determines thought and predicts culture. Differences in language reflect differences in cultures and how they perceive the world.
Telegraphic speech
Comes when the toddler puts two words together to express one idea. Occurs between 18-24 months; by 24 mths, average vocab is 200 words.
Holophrastic speech
Infant speaks its first meaningful word at about 1 yr. At around 18 mths, infant experiences a vocab. spurt, occurring after mastery of 30-50 words.
Echolalia
Begins at about 10 mths and involves deliberate imitation of sounds without comprehension. At 9-10 mths can string together sounds in a pattern.
Word Comprehension
At about 9 mths of age, babies begin to understand words such as “no” or the baby’s name.
Babbling
3-4 mths of age, repeating consonant vowel combination (like dada or baba). At 4-6 mths of age repeated combinations is thought to contain all phonemes (smallest unit of sound in language) that are present across languages.
Stages of language acquisition
- Crying
- Cooing
- Babbling
- Word Comprehension
- Echolalia
- Holphrastic Speech
- Telegraphic Speech
Bilingual education
Children are taught in their first language and English. May be preferable and more academically successful than English only classes.
Neural plasticity helps young children manage learning two languages more easily than older children and adults.
Bilingualism
Linked with: cognitive flexibility, creativity, and attentiveness. Bilingual speakers have greater metalinguistic understanding which is knowledge of grammatical rules.
Chomskey’s Language Structures
World languages differ in surface characteristics, but have basic similarities in composition (deep structure).
Surface structure: Actual sound or word sequence: Deep structutre: Intent of sentence Transformational grammar (preverbal, intuitive rules): turn deep structure into surface structure
Chomskey’s LAD
Language Acquisition Device: Emphasizes biologically programmed capacities for language acquisition. Speakers comprehend and produce an unlimited set of sentences. Children are pre-programmed to learn language and born with cognitive structure designed to learn linguistic universals. There are similarities across cultures.
Bruner
Known for his work on the modes of cognitive representation; he focused on children’s favored modes for representing the word in different stages.
Equilibration
The innate drive toward an optimal state of balance between people’s schemata and their environment. Involves both assimilation and accommodation.
Organization
Refers to the natural ability of the mind to organize its processes and materiel in complex and integrated ways.
Adaptation
The process by which organisms change and adapt, sot that they will be more successful in a particular environment. Results from the complementary dynamics of assimilation and accomodation, involves changes to the individual’s schemata.
Schemata
Piaget’s term for cognitive structures that process information, perceptions and experiences. Schematas change as the person grows via adaptation. Schemata organize patterns of behavior that people use as a guide for thinking about or acting in a particular situation.
Piaget’s interpretation of speech
Speech in preoperational period of development (age 2-7) is egocentric and done with the child’s limited awareness of how his or her speech impacts others.
Vygotsky’s Cooperative Learning
More skilled students are able to informa nd instruct the less expereinced ones.
Vygotsky’s pretend play
Used by children to help them learn how to behave in the world
Vygotsky’s belief about teaching
Teaching relationships may be within the family, community, or school.
Ability to remember based on three factors
- Nature of the event.
- How often event is experienced.
- Ability of cues to remind the person.
Assimilation
Piaget’s word for the way that children interpret new experiences through existing schemata, or the process of incorporating new information into existing schemata.
Accomodation
Piaget’s term for the process of changing existing schemata to include and adapt to new experiences.This process requires schemata to change when a new object or event does not fit.
Critical accomplishments of the sensorimotor stage
(birth to 2): Up to 4-8 mths, child will not look for a toy that is covered. Between 8 and 12 mths, able to find toy even if covered, but rely heavily on perceptions and actions to know an object. By 18 mths, able to find toy in its final location (mental representations). Object permanence mastered at this point.
Terminal drop
The phenomenon in which a person’s cognitive functioning declines in the 1-5 years before he or she dies.
Robert Kleemeier - This reflects the lessened ability to cope adequately with the environmental demands because of lowered ability to integrate stimuli. May be due to failing health. Depression may be involved, causing the person to withdraw or become unmotivated to do wwell on IQ tests despite no actual decline.
Use of mnemonic devices
Benefits older adults more than younger adults
Metamemory
The ability to reflect on how memory works. Demonstrated in the use of rehearsal, repetition, and other purposeful methods of increasing one’s memory.
Savantism
Being a savant refers to having a developmental disorder along with some unusually gifted ability. Sometimes seen in autistic children.
Mastery motivation
Inherent drive to master and control the environment, first apparent in early infancy.
Identifiers for gifted children
Rapid learning, extensive vocab., good memory, long attention span, perfectionism, preference for older companions, excellent sense of humor, early interest in reading, strong ability with puzzles and mazes, maturity, pereverance.
Linda Silverman
Used the Characteristics of Giftedness Scale to identify gifted children at the Gifted Development Center.
Gifted Children
IQ above 130; Combination of above average ability, creativity, and task commitment; Can be determined by advanced language at 18 mths; These children are highly curious and motivated to learn.
Emotional intelligence
Daniel Goleman’s concept, which describes the self-perceived keen capacity to identify and understand emotional processes of self and others.
Synchrony effect
Older adults tend to do better when tested in the morning (IQ)
Intelligence and aging
Middle adulthood brings the maximum performance of cognitive abilities. Abilities do not globally decrease as people age. Some remain intact or even improve.
“Classic aging pattern” = decline in performance skills with verbal rmaining intact.
Leta Hollingworth’s Emphasis on the continuity of development
Attacked Hall’s “Storm and Stress” in her book, “The Psychology of the Adolescent” (1928). Highlighted a continuity of development and steadiness of change through adolescense. Did not believe there were distinct stages in development.
Storm and stress theory
Hall (1904) called adolescence a time of significant emotional turmoil. Subsequent research shows only a small percentage (20%) of teens go through “storm and stress” (and were having probs before adolescence)
Puberty
The attainment of sexual maturity in males and females. Prior to puberty, boys and girls similar in height, weight, and strength. Females usually begin puberty between the ages of 10 and 12. Boys between the ages of 12-16.
Boys and maturation
Late maturing boys have most difficulty of all boys. Early maturing boys seem to have positive psychological adjustment: better scholastic performance, better self-image, greater popularity, more socially competent, self-assured, and attractive. Also, earalier involvement in substance use and other deviant behaviors.
Girls and early maturation
Early maturing girls experience most difficulties. Girls - may be teased for early maturation, often less popular that prepubescent classmates, depression and anxiety likely. Tend to make friends with older peer groups. Body image probs and conflicts with parents.
Rate of growth (maturation) for boys and girls
Girls - The peak rate of growth for height is just under 12 years. Boys - The peak rate of growth is 13.4 years
Vygotsky and self-talk
Self talk allows children to advance cognitively. Seen in ages 4-7.
Vygotsky’s and Culture’s tools
Refers to common items or symbolic systems found in one’s culture. The use of these tools change the way we organize and think about the world and cognition can only be understood in the context of culture.
Vygotsky and cognitive development
Cognitive development unfolds as children experiment with the world.
Boys and friendships
Tend to exhibit “restricting style” that is characterized by bragging, contradicting, and interrupting. Male friendships are based on shared activities and interests.
Girls and friendships
Exhibit “enabling style” that increases intimacy and equality by expressing agreement, making suggestions, providing support. Female friendships facilitate intimacy and emotionality.
Adolescent’s interpersonal evaluations
Tend to evaluate each other more negatively, which can worsen unpopular child’s social situation. Continued social difficulty can negatively impact child’s academics, behaviors, and social skills. May result in maladjustment even into adulthood. Popular children more outgoing, communicative, and generally more academically successful.
Groups of acceptance for children
Popular: Most liked and tend to be friendly and able to offer positive remarks about others. Controversial: Liked by some, disliked by others. Aggressive-rejected: Consistently disliked by peers and aggressive. Withdrawn-rejected: Consistently disliked by peers and withdrawn. Neglected: Neither liked or disliked by peers
Children and rejection
Peer relationships are crucial to development of children. Acceptance or rejection can impact a child.
Risk factors for children and depression
Loss of a loved one; Lack of a best friend; Experience of rejection (a combination of biological, psychological, and social-system variables).
Prevalence rates of depression among children
8% of adolescents suffer from mod-sev depression. 15-20% of college students report having had a period of serious depression.
Love withdrawal
Denial of attention, approval, or affection as a means of discipline after a child disobeys or misbehaves.
Object permanece
Understanding that things go on existing even when they cannot be seen or detected by the senses. Mastered by the end of infancy.
Developed by Piaget. Infants are able to perceive a mental image (representation) of the object, even when not present. This explains separation protest and stranger anxiety.
Sleep-Onselt Association Disorder
Child simply does not sleep. Will not go to bed without parent, being nursed, or receiving other various comforts from outside source.
Childhood sleep disorders
Includes sleep deprivation, night terrors, sleepwalking, sleep-onset association disorder, and primary nocturnal enuresis. Occurs most often in preschool and school-age years; Usually a family hx of disorder; Males outnumber females 4 to 1.
Cooing
Begins around 1-2 months old. Sound in back of throat that generally indicates happiness.
Stress and infant crying
There may be a rx between stress in expectant mothers and crying of newborns.
Infants prenatally exposed to stress exhibit more crying/fussing behavior
Parental reactions to crying
Parents most responsive to hunger and pain cries. Mother tend to be more responsive than fathers. Mothers and fathers equally good at discriminating their child’s cry from others.
Four types of crying
Rhythmic cry: most common (infant may use other cry than return to rhythmic); Hunger cry: Rhythmic cry may overlap with this one; Anger cry: loud in nature; Pain cry: Preliminary cry followed by breath holding.
Private speech
A term of Vygotsky’s referring to young children’s tendency to speak aloud to themselves. Essential for cognitive development as it helps integrate language with thoughts, is used to guide actions, and may aid the completion of difficult or confusing tasks.
Centration
Term of Piaget’s referring to the tendency by preoperationl children to focus on one part of a problem or issue, instead of noticing all parts.
Associative play
3-4 years; symbolic play, children are playing together. More mature child may emerge as leader. Younger playmates do not usually question leader’s authority.
Parallel play
Under and around 2 years of age; each child playing independently, although in proximity to each other.
Solitary or independent play
Until about 9 mths; characterized as simple motor activity, completed by a solitary child.
Infant is fully absorbed in experiencing and processing self-centered world.
Piaget’s categories of play (+transitional stage)
Solitary or Independent Play; Parallel Play; Associative Play; Dramatic Play; Make-Believe Play; Cooperative Play
Movement across stages may vary based on upbringing and personality of child.
Piaget’s transitional category of play
Games of construction: Initially heavily symbolic, later evolving into clearer adaptations, such as mechanical constructions, as well as solutions to problems and spontaneous creations.
Piaget’s 3rd level of play
Games with rules: such as marbles, enhances social development
Piaget’s 2nd level of play
Symbolic Play: Expression of the self by means of symbols (other than language) that the child constructs and directs to his wishes. (fulfills function of assimilation of reality to the self through variety of ways, including imitation)
Piaget’s first level of play
Exercise Play: A pre-symbolic repetitive form of play that only occurs in the sensorimotor stage and is simply pleasureable to the child.
