I/O Psychology Flashcards
Criterion Related Validity Coefficient
Coeffecient representing usefulness of predictor for predicting criterion outcomes; uses correlation. Higher correlation means higher test scores = better performance. Increased confidence in selection procedures.
Taylor and Russell use of validity coefficient
Usefulenss depends on selection ratio and base rate of success. When validity coeffecient is moderate to high, it is useful for informing selection decision when base rate is moderate and selection ratio is low.
Selection ratio
Number of openings per number of applicants
Base rate of success
Unscreened employees who are currently successful on the job
When is validity coefficient not useful
When the base rate of success is very high or very low.
Reliability coeffecient
A correlation that reflects the consistency and stability of a measure, over time, across equivalent forms, or among internal items.
Incremental validity
Refers to the additional predictive validity that can be gained by adding more measurement devices to an assessment program.
Validity generalization
Refers to the extent to which a validity established in one setting with one sample can be generalized to another setting and sample.
Adverse Impact
A legal term that refers to the potentially unintentional discrimination against a protected group (usually minority racial groups and women) due to the use of a selection or placement procedure. (less than 80%)
Reliability coefficient - calculation
Used to assess the consistency or a measurement of instrument or procedure, internally, with different forms, or across time.
Reliability Coefficient - statistic
Computed to asses the consistency in judgment of 2 or more human raters engaged in the same rating task. (i.e., test-retest, equivalent-form, split-half, inter-rater.
Test-retest
Coefficient of stability, measurement given to same group at two different times, risk of contamination from carryover of first test to second test.
Equivalent-from
Coefficient of equivalence, parallel forms of the instrument are given to the same group at the same time; difficulty generating two forms
Internal consistency
Split-half or Chronbach’s alpha; correlate first half to second half or correlate every other item; widely used in I/O
Inter-rater
Correlate scores of various raters; important in I/O for job analysis ratings and employment interviews
Quality Assurance (QA)
Planning and processing moves undertaken by an organization to ensure products/services serve intended purposes (which are defined by users of the product or services.
Process to ensure QA
Assmts conducted over time to determine reliability; controlling and monitoring materials, processes, mgmt., and personnel.
Quality Control QC
Finding defects/errors before customer presented with product; based on organizational standards and expectations, not external feedback; QC can inform QA process
Total Quality Management TQM
Attempting to embed QA in all aspects of organization; assigning responsibility for QA to organization’s production, process, and distribution members. Improving quality and meeting demands.
Assessment
Methods & procedures used to evaluate & understand individuals in the workplace. That outcome is used to make decisions about individual performance, skill and training levels, aptitude, as well as organizational processes.
Contextual performance
Bxs performed by an employee that are not part of his or her regular tasks, but that reflects positively on the organization or otherwise assist the organization. AKA organizational citizenship.
What happens when selection ratio is high
This indicates that most applicants will be hired, including those that will be unsuccessful.
What happens when selection ratio is low
Indicates few applicants hired per number applied, minimizes inclusion of unsuccessful candidates
What happens when base rates are high
Indicates that most employees are successful, thus most candidates will be as well and the test won’t be necessary or helpful.
What happens when base rates are low
Indicates the test won’t discriminate those who won’t be successful
What happens when base rates are close to .50?
Validity coeffecients will be best able to determine success of the candidate.
What is the best scenario regarding selection ratio?
Selection ratio is low, base rate is moderate, then even lower validity coefficients are informative.
Ways to mitigate adverse impact
Separate cutoff scores for different groups, banding, selection of predictors determined to be valid and reliable.
Banding
using ranges of scores where all scores within a range are considered equivalent
Criterion contamination
Occurs when the assessment on the conceptual criterion (e.g., job performance) is made not only by relevant actual criteria measures, but also in terms of actual criteria that could be considered extraneous.
Job Analysis
Method to describe jobs and human attributes necessary to perform them (KSAOs). Used to inform selection, placement, training, and other organizational processes.
Focus of job analysis
selection, placement, training and development, job redesign
Selection
Choosing the right person for the right job
placement
assigning person with appropriate assignments
Training and development
modification of knowledge, skills and abilities
Job Redesign
remaking the assignment fit person more appropriately
Components of Job Analysis
Determining KSAOs; group tasks into positions, then into jobs, then into job families; task statements (descriptions of the work), subject matter experts
Subject Matter Experts (SME)
current holders of position, supervisors, verify task statements
Functional job analysis
Task statements include how employee accomplishes the task (i.e. the physical, mental, and interpersonal resources called upon for job completion)
Worker-based job analysis
Focused directly on KSAOs, task statements (represents KSAOs: knowledge of, skill in, ability to); and linkage analysis (confirms linkage of KSAOs to immediate task.
Assessment of KSAOs
Interviews, work diaries, questionnaires, direct observation, id’ing CIs; position analysis questionnaire
Needs assessment
A 3-part process (organization, operations, and person analysis) for ID’ing specific job relevant skills and bxs that must be trained to achieve optimal organizational and individual performance.
Job Evaluation
An organizational activity supported by job analysis that consists of ID’ing the monetary value of each job to the organization; this helps organizations determine how much to pay individuals in different positions
Realistic job description
AKA a realistic job preview (RJP). It is a technique for providing practical information about a job to prospective employees: includes information about the task and context of the work
Job Characteristics Assessment
Hackman and Oldman; To understand how employment positions affect motivation, satisfaction, and performance of employees.
Employee motivation related to what 3 psychological states while working
knowledge of actual results, sense of responsibility, and job meaningfulness
Job Characteristics Model
States that in order for an employee to be highly motivated, they must have these 5 characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback
Utility analysis
Performed when organization wants to understand economic return of a HR strategy they employ/are contemplating; utility is dollar payoof of one strategy over another; conducted w/reference to selection or training program & compared to performance and productivity
Utility value equation
Utility value = rewards (profits w/new strategy) x expected payoff over time (how long strategy will produce benefit) x # of applicants accommodated - expense of strategy
High utility value
Strategy profitable/cost effective
Effective Analysis
Often conducted with Utility Analysis to determine which strategy was statistically related to performance improvements
Taylor-Russell Selection Tables
A utility model predicting success ratio of HR strategies based on validity, selection ratio, and base rate
Differential validity
When there is a significant difference in the predictive validity for different subgroups (usually ethnic groups)
Four characteristics of assessment centers
Supervisors and mid-level managers evaluated only; group/team oriented: assesed in groups of 10-20; multiple evaluators used; variety of asset activities implemented.
Goals of assmt centers
Evaluate individuals on many dimensions; info. used to make predictions on typical managerial skills
360-degree feedback
Multisource feedback procedure in which multiple rating sources provide feedback to managers. Sources include supervisors, subordinated, peers, and managers’ self-ratings. Allows managers to see discrepancies in how they see self and others see them.
Job Selection Procedures
interviews, work samples, biota, and personality or cognitive tests. Procedures are known as predictors since they are assumed to predict job performance (criterion)
What big 5 trait is most related to job performance?
Conscientiousness
High conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability =
High measures of integrity
Low agreeableness, low conscientiousness, high extraversion and high neuroticism =
antisocial personality dx
Big 5, most to least stable
Extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and nueroticism
Which of the big 5 explains a level of independence, imagination,and curiosity?
Openness to experience
Which of the big 5 has a methodical approach to life, self-control, and achievement orientation?
Concientous
Which of the big 5 relates to level of sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness?
Extroversion/introversion
Which of the big 5 has a level of friendliness, likability, and cooperativeness?
Agreeableness
Which of the big 5 is explained by level of calmness, anxiety, and emotionality?
Neuroticism
Acquired Needs Theory
McClelland and colleagues uncovered three major factors that motivate ppl in workplace and life: Need for Achievement, Need for Power, and Need for Affiliation
Self-Regulation Theory
Banduar, approach assumes that people consciously set goals for themselves, monitor feedback to self-evaluate, and confirm or correct based on that feedback. Effectiveness and self-efficacy develops from this process.
Civil rights act of 1964
Legislation that protects demographic groups such as AA, Hispanic, and women from employment discrimination
Age Discrimination in Employment Act
Legislation that protects individuals 40 yrs or older from discrimination in selection, termination, pay, and training.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
Investigative agency of Fed. Gov. that seeks to confirm or disconfirm instances of discrimination, ad to seek resolution of discrimination claims
Job characteristics assessment evaluates:
Skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and task feedback
Skill variety
can make a job more meaningful
task identity
can enhance job satisfaction whether the employee does an entire job or piece of a job
task significance
the more impact a task has on others, the more meaningful
autonomy
freedom employees have to conduct their jobs as they see fit
task feedback
enhance job satisfaction by enabling an employee to know if they are doing their jobs correctly
Holland’s RIASEC
Matching individual traits and job characteristics allows predication of job success and satisfaction. Realistic, investigative, artistic, social (helper) enterprising, conventional (organizer)
Which one of Holland’s domains has to do with someone who is asocial, conforming, materialistic, persistent, practical and inflexible?
Realistic (doer)
Which one of Holland’s domains has to deal with someone who is analytical, cautious, critical, complex curious, independent, introspective, pessimistic, rational and reserved?
Investigative (thinker)
Holland:complicated, emotional, disorderly, expressive, idealistic, imaginative, impulsive, independent, introspective, nonconforming
Artistic (creator)
Holland: cooperative, patient, friendly, generous, helpful, idealistic, warm empathic, kind social, tactful
Social (helper)
Holland: inquisitive, adventurous, agreeable, ambitious, energetic, excitement-seeking, extroverted, flirtatious, optimistic and self-confident
Enterprising (persuader)
Holland: careful, conforming, conscientious, defensive, efficient, inflexible, orderly, persistent, practical and prudish
Conventional (organizer)
Holland - ECR
conforming personalities
Holland - SAI
non-conforming personalities
Holland RI
introverted personalities
Holland ES
extroverted personalities
biodata
info collected about previous jobs, education, and personal history; a good predictor of some organizational behavior, such as turnover
Work sample
Measure job skills by taking samples of bx in realistic job situations; good predictors of job performance; less likely to discriminate against minorities (better at assessing motor than verbal skills)
Multiple hurdle system
involves a minimum cut-off being set on one predictor that entitles candidate to proceed to next hurdle
Multiple cut-off selection technique
applicant must succeed on all predictors; tests not administered in any particular order
Job evaluations help to determine:
compensation
External equity
wages compared to other employees
Internal equity
wages within organization
Job evaluation - value
identified by compensable factors: skill, responsibility/accountability, working conditions
Job performance
Observable things employees do to contribute to the goals of the organization
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Requires that employers with 15 or more employees give applicants with disabilities the same consideration for a position that a non-disabled applicant would receive. Also, when feasible, an employer must make reasonable accommodations.
Super’s Career Development Theory
Applying lifespan and life space into a coherent career identity development theory; graphically represented as a life-career rainbow. Life space=social roles; lifespan=stage of life or stage of career; not everyone goes thru all stages; some may recycle back thru with new careers
Super’s growth stage
Age 4-13; developing a personal self-concept; understanding of meaning and utility of work.
Super’s exploration stage
Age 14-24; examining oneself; developing realistic sense of self; trying out different roles; expanding awareness of vocational possibilities
Super’s establishment stage
Age 25-45; focusing efforts into a single career; advancing in that career; phase with the most creative output in one’s vocation
Super’s maintenance stage
Age 45-65; emphasizes keeping employment; identifying personal limitations; focus on concerns over newly hired competition; learning new skills to keep up
Super’s disengagement stage
Age 65+; process of pulling away from one’s duties; reducing responsibilities at work for mental, physical, or emotional reasons; eventually results in retirement and immersion in other life roles
Tiedman and O’Hara’s Career Development
Using cognitive development theory as a base, career development viewed as an element of one’s ego identity and as a continuing process throughout one’s lifetime.
Tiedman and O’Hara’s differentiation
Making distinctions about different aspects of oneself and one’e environment
Tiedman and O’Hara’s Integration
Unifying these different aspects and results in making better decisions, more refined goals, and developing useful plans
Tiedman and O’Hara’s Decision making
seven stages: exploration crystalliation, choice, clarification, induction, reformation, and integration
Tiedman and O’Hara’s styles of decision-making
Planning (most effective), intuitive, impulsive, agonizing, delaying, paralytic, fatalistic, and compliant.
Donald Super
Viewed career and vocation as a combination of 8 life roles, including: child, student, leisure, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, pensioner.
Holland’s Vocational Theory
Holland proposed that people like to be around others who have similar personalities; in choosing a career, it means that people choose jobs where they can be around other people who are like them.
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory of Career Choice and Counseling
Focuses on interacting with the environment in making career decisions, with emphasis on the learning resulting from those interactions.
What do specific and difficult goals do for employees?
Enhances motivation and performacne and keeps bx goal-oriented
Critical Incident Technique
For each employee, positive and negative behaviors that are assumed to influence job performance and noted and tallied. Results used to encourage pos bx and correct neg ones
Order of merit comparison
AKA simple ranking, this method of employee comparison involves ranking employees in terms of their performance on some specified dimension of job performance; it is easier, yet less precise, then paired comparison
Peer appraisals
Peers are likely to interact with fellow employees more frequently and know more about daily performance. There are several types of peer appraisal including: peer nominations, peer ratings, and peer rankings.
Peer nominations
Most useful for id’ing persons w/extreme high or low levels of KSAOs
Peer ratings
best for providing feedback
Peer rankings
best for discriminating various levels of performance from highest to lowest on each dimension
Paired comparison model
Used to compare all individuals within a group to each other, or individuals with the same job title to each other on various dimensions of a job or task
Frame of reference training
Focused on correcting possible rater distortions resulting from unintentional rater biases. Familiarized raters w/nature of job performance, content and nature of performance, good/bad work-related bx. More effective than psychometric training
Productivity
Refers to the proportion of effectiveness to the cost incurred by achieving that effectiveness
Selection
The organizational practice of choosing the right individual for a job
Psychometric training
A method of rater training that focuses on raising rater awareness about common sources of rater bias in hopes that this awareness will reduce rating distortions
Administrative training
A type of rater training that focuses on compensating for scale deficiencies by developing consensus about, for example, definitions among raters.
Incentive/reinforcement theory
Assumes that desired bx can be obtained through use of incentive systems or tangible rewards. Rewards contingent on individual unit of productivity
Reinforcement theory - to change worker motivation
Adjust the way reinforcements are delivered, (salary, benefits, days off) or punish
Reinforcement theory - Highest rates of responding
When individuals are on partial reinforcement schedule or number of units produced
Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation
Asserts that setting specific and difficult goals motivates people and enhances performance
Equity Theory
Motivational theory that was developed by J. Stacey Adams who suggested that individuals relate their inputs (work efforts) and outcomes (compensation, promotions) relative to those of others.
Path-Goal Theory
Motivational and leadership theory that suggested that workers rationally weigh options before choosing how much effort to exert
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
States that motivation comes from the nature of the job itself, not from external awards or job compensation. (Job motivation and job satisfaction related to motivational factors - achmt, recognition, responsibility)
Competency modeling
Procedure for determining which characteristics or competencies are necessary to perform a job
Vestibule training
AKA “near the job training” in which the classroom is located in a set of conditions that closely replicate the actual working environment; one ex. use of stimulator
Components of training
Needs asset (organizational analysis, task analysis, person analysis); learning principles; transfer of training (to actual jobs); evaluation of the program
Job performance
Actions or bx relevant to the organization’s goals, measured in terms of each individual’s proficiency
Performance equation
performance is a function of ability and motivation
Job enrichment
AKA Vertical loading; expanding employees’ tasks to give them greater autonomy, authority, and freedom; encourages employees to take up new and challenging tasks; has been found to increase job satisfaction and performance while decreasing turnover and absenteeism
Job enlargement
AKA horizontal loading; increasing the variety of tasks performed without increasing the employee’s responsibility or autonomy; has been found to increase job satisfaction and slightly affects job performance
Job commitment
Emotional attachment or affective commitment to an organization; acceptance and belief in an organization’s goals; willingness to help the organization achieve its goals; the perceived cost of living; and a sense of obligation
Predictors of job success
cognitive tests, work samples, personality traits interviews, biodata
BARS
Type of performance veal: a combo of ratings-based procedures and the critical incident technique. Bx CIs are ranked, sorted into relevant job dimensions, and used as subjective evaluative anchors by evaluators
Dimensions of a job (BARS)
Characterized by critical representative behaviors, which serve as judgmental anchors in the evaluation process
BARS Evaluators ratings
Based on their expectations that employees can engage in critical behaviors that are more or less important to the job
Advantages of behavioral anchors for BARS
Job-specific, strategically focused, has face-validity, considered a fair evaluation, and reduces rater bias and increases inter-rater reliability
Disadvantages of bx anchors for BARS
Time-consuming; requires extensive interaction with subject matter and experts
About creativity
Trait-like; primarily frontal-lobe; associated with openness to experience; related to IQ, convergent thinking; can be taught; creative ppl tend to be attracted to complexity
Human factors
A branch of psychology that is concerned with the match of individuals to the physical and psychological demands of particular workplaces. Includes: ergonomics, biomechanics, and human-technology interaction. Overlaps w/engineering psychology
TQM developed by
William Demming
TQM’s origins
The US, Japan, and Europe. Japan earlier adopter of TQM.
TQM Characteristics
Quality over quantity; involve the employees and customers; eliminating erros and flaws at every level; multi-directional communication w/team goals/rewards; reduction in ratio of managers to non-managers; fairness emphasized for all employees; job changes focus on autonomy, feedback, significance, skill & variety of task
Findings about peer appraisals
Generally free from bias; useful for predicting future success or outcomes.
Critical Incidents
Worker bx; id’d by job incumbent and supervisors as particularly effective or ineffective in job performance; used in employee evals; conveyed in narrative and descriptive format; not quantitative uses (comparing employees or deciding comp); helpful in feddback situations and establishing objectives for training
Fiedler’s LPC Theory
Includes least preferred co-worker; leader rates workers on 1-8 scale. If most rated high = relationship oriented; most rated low = task-oriented
LPC theory; Rx oriented best when
moderately favorable situation. Minimizez importance of completing tasks successfully, emphasizes importance of rx in office
LPC theory; task oriented best when
unfavorable situations. More effort in attempting to complete task efficiently, minimizes importance of relationships in office.
LPC Best Fit situation
Effectiveness of leaders is dependent on situational factors
Path Goal Theory
Deals witht he ways in which leaders can help employees achieve their goals, using one of 4 styles: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented.
Normative model
There are 5 styles fo leader bx that can be placed on a continuum, ranging from autocratic to complete participation
Vertical Dyadic Linkage Theory
Focuses on the impact of the leader-superordinate relationship process. Employees are classified as in-group or out-group. Leaders are classified as supervisory or leadership.
Central tendency bias
Opposite of leniency/strictness bias; always rating employees with middle range scores
Floor Effect
Occurs when a scale or items are constructed in such a way that the higher ends of the scale are unlikely choices, and the lowest choices do not capture the lowest choices raters might wish to make
Contrast Effect
When the accuracy of a judgment is affected by a prior case or instance
Ohio State Leadership Studies
Leadership model that emphasizes task and person leadershipe syles by assesing job-related bx; two major: Offers consideration (AKA Consideration) and Initiates Structure
Ohio State - Consideration
Emphasizes trust, respect, warmth, concern, support, and rapport between leader and superordinate. Higher levels of consideration = person-centered leadership, consistently related to greater subordinate satisfaction.
Ohio State - Initiating Structure
Emphasized formal goals, deadlines, task assignment, standard procedures, and high performance standards. Initiating supervisor defines goals and makes their expectations clear.
Transformational Leadership
Leader expresses a vision that appeals to the higher moral fiber of the followers and in turn motivates them to become better than they are; Strategies are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.
Transactional Leadership
Leader distributes rewards to followers as they behave in ways that assist in attaining work-related goals; major strategies include contingent rewards
Charismatic Leadership
Visionary leader emerges in a time of crisis (real or fabricated) and inspires followers to use novel strategies to achieve an organizational mission; followers internalize the values and beliefs of the leader and often attribute extraordinary characteristics to the leader
Self-Directed Teams
Self-managing groups; semi-autonomous work groups. Characterized by distributed leadership, shared decision-making, shared goals, cross-training, and job rotations
Self-Directed Teams and cross-training
Cross training is mandatory; learning skills to perform all group functions, reinforced thru routine switching of job tasks in the groups, provides coverage during absenteeism of a member
Outcome of cross-training
Workplace teams have higher levels of satisfaction, higher productivity, and less turnover because they are self-led.
Why cross-training is difficult
Employees and managers resist them, distrust and resistance to change are likely why, attitudes of success are localized to the team and do not generalize to positive thoughts of the organization
Normative Model of Leadership
Vroom and Yetton’s model focuses on varisou decision-making styles and situational variables. It is assumed that commitment and acceptance are function of acceptance of the leader’s decision and that acceptance is a function of participation in decision-making model.
Leader Vs. Manager characteristics
Manager has legitimate authority based on position. Leader is given the responsibility of directing and motivating behavior. Managers must have leadership qualities, but not all managers are effective leaders
Automation
Substitution of machines for humans to complete tasks. Can be seen as competition and problematic when not monitored.
Advantages of automation
Instances where humans can’t work (extreme conditions); work that is important but tedious; work that is repetitive, physical, and mistake-prone. Frees humans for more satisfying work.
Autonomy
The degree of control and individual has over their job
Centralization
Occurs when decision-making is made near the top of the organization because that is where power and authority are concentrated. Mgmt reports up through single chain of command. Used when business environment is stable and predictable.
Satisficing
When an individual chooses the first acceptable alternative rather than evaluation all possible alternatives
Decentralization
Information is distributed through a multitude of functional and regional command chains. Used when business environment is changing and competitive. Allows business units to make autonomous decisions
Span of control
The number of subordinates under the authority of a manager
Authoritarian leadership
The leader makes essentially all of the decisions alone
Democratic leadership
Leader works with group members to make decisions
Administrative Model of Decision Making
Alternative to rational-Economic Decision Making Model; fast decision; bounded rationality; bounded discretion; satisficing
Bounded rationality
Lack of time, information, and financial resources to consider every possible alternative in real business
Bounded discretion
ethical or moral consideration can limit solutions considered
Carnegie Model
Organization elaboration of Administrative Decision-Making model; organizational goals often inconsistent with individual depts within organization; accepting satisfactory vs. optimal solution which allows avhmt of multiple goals
Rational-Economic Model
Systematic approach to decision-making that emphasizes a logical, step-by-step sequence in order to arrive at the best possible solution to a problem.
Heterogenous Teams
Generally outperform homogenous teams; better w/developing innovative solutions, but greater difficulty when task requires communication and careful coordination
Homogenous groups with high conscientiousness:
reduces social loafing, increases cohesion, and reduces conflict
Homogenous groups with high or low extraversion
can result in power struggles and lack of leadership
Highly heterogenous groups:
benefit from wide range of solutions, skills, and perspectives but may experience less organizational commitment, more turnover, and higher absenteeism rates
Highly homogenous groups:
have fewer ideas, skills and solutions, but more commitment.
Who works better in the short term? Homogenous or heterogenous groups?
Homogenous better in short term but heterogenous catch up in the long run
Communication Networks
Patterns of info transmission and exchange between and among members of teams and groups, defining who communicates with whom, to what extent, and how often
Centralized Communication Network
Communication travels to a central person and is redistributed; not all members have access to one another to receive info; associated w/low job satisfaction, low speed and low accuracy on complex tasks; minimal communication for high speed communication and accuracy on simple talks. Person in middle has highest level of satisfation, especially with simple task.
Decentralized Communication Network
Member communicate directly in point-to-point fashion, all group members involved in communication, associated w/higher satisfaction, but low speed and accuracy on simple tasks; allows for efficient and effective commuincation, increasing speed and accuracy on complex tasks
Which communication network is better for large groups?
Centralized more efficient with larger group (8-20 members)
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
Leadership styles conceptualized in terms of task and relationship orientation. Optimal style is dependent upon the different levels of subordinate maturity, which is characterized by their willingness to accept responsibility.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Employee psychological maturity
Self-confidence and self-respect: confidence and willingness to undertake assignments
Hersey and Blanchard’s Employee job maturity
Level of job-related knowledge, skills, and abilities
Hersey and Blanchard’s High employee maturity
Both job and psychological maturity
Hersey and Blanchard’s Immaturity
lacking both job and psychological maturity
Hersey and Blanchard’s Moderate Maturity
Have one (psychological or job), but lack the other
Hersey and Blanchard’s Leadership Styles
Telling, selling, participating, and delegating
Hersey and Blanchard’s Telling Style
Employees are less able, unwilling, and lack confidence (low maturity); leader focus is high task orientation, low relationship style, characterized by explicit task directions and close supervision
Hersey and Blanchard’s Selling Style
Employees less able, but willing and confident (mod maturity); leader focus is high task orientation, high relationship orientation style; characterized by directions presented in persuasive, supportive manner.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Participating Style
Employees able, but not confident or willing (mod maturity); leader focus is low task orientation, high relationship orientation style; characterized by shared ideas and responsibilities b/w leader and employees
Hersey and Blanchard’s Delegating Style
Followers are able, willing, confident (high maturity); leader focus is low task orientation, low relationship orientation style; characterized my minimalist leadership style, while allowing employees to take responsibility for task completion and decisions
Idealized Influence
Transformational Leadership style; actions characterized by sense of ethics, conviction, commitment, purpose, and decisiveness in the face of difficult issues
Inspirational motivation
Transformational Leadership style; characterized by an appealing vision, high standards, optimism, enthusiasm, encouragement, and injecting meaning into follower actions
Intellectual stimulation
Transformational Leadership style; leaders question the status quo (especially regarding assumptions, beliefs, and values), stimulate change, and encourage innovation and communication
Individualized consideration
Transformational Leadership style; leaders attend to each follower by listening actively, and attending to individual’s needs, dreams, and abilities, or mentoring, coaching, and teaching
Avolio and Bass’ full-range leadership model
Transformational leadership most effective; transactional shown less effective; lassies-faire leadership is least effective.
Transformational leadership most effective in:
Unstable environments, organic organizational structures, entrepreneurial cultures
Contingency theory’s Task Complexity
Task structure elements such as clear/unclear feedback, few versus many potential employable tactics, and few versus many potential outcomes. Complex tasks = vague feedback, many possible tactics and outcomes. Simple tasks = clear feedback, one or two tactics and only one or two outcomes
Ideal situation for leadership
Task is simple: leader has substantial legitimate power, worker-worker and worker-leader relationships are positive
Worst situation for leadership
Task is complex, leader has little legitimate power, worker-worker and worker-leader relationships are poor
Normative explanation
Suggests that members evaluate each other’s positions on the issue, and the shift occurs in the direction of the mean position
Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Model of Leadership decision-making styles
Autocratic I (A1); Autocratic II (A11); Consultative I (C1); Consultative II (C11); and Group II (G11)
Vroom and Yetton’s A1
Leaders decide with available information
Vroom and Yetton’s A11
Leaders obtain info from subordinates but do not involve them in discussing the prob or making decisions
Vroom and Yetton’s C1
Leaders ask individual subordinates for their views and then decides
Vroom and Yetton’s C11
Leader asks subordinates as a collective group for their views and then makes a decision alone
Vroom and Yetton’s G11
Leaders share the problem with the subordinates as a group, focuses and directs discussion without imposing his/her will, and tries to reach a consensus, within the group making the final decision
Vroom and Yetton’s Qs to assess 8 situational variables
Quality requirement, commitment requirement, leader’s information, problem structure, commitment probability, goal congruence, subordinate conflict, and subordinate information
Vroom and Yetton’s optimal leadership and decision-making style
Dependent on structure of the task, time constraints, subordinate’s interrelationships, and subordinates’ commitment to the decision
Skill variety
capacity for employees to use a wide range of skills
Task identity
employee’s involvement in all aspects of job throughout the process
Task significance
how meaningful worker feels task is to organization
Psychological states affecting core elements of motivation
meaningfulness; sense of responsibility (autonomy); knowledge of outcomes (feedback)
Hackman and Oldman’s GNS
Individual Growth Need Strength; individual differences to which workers desire personal growth and development from work. High GNS respond more strongly and benefit more from jobs with five core characteristics
Hackman and Oldman’s MPS
Motivating Potential Score; MPS = skill variety + task identity + task significance x autonomy x feedback; motivation higher when characteristic amounts are higher; if any characteristic is missing, score returns to zero
Expectancy Theory
Worker’s are motivated to perform better if they believe that a particular work behavior leads to particular outcomes, such as a raise (part of Vroom’s theory)
McGregor’s Theory X
Workers lack motivation and ambition, are not self-directed, and must be controlled, coerced,and supervised if work is to get done; emphasizes workplace hierarchy, efficient division of labor, span of control, and strict supervision.
McGregor’s Theory Y
Workers are intrinsically motivated and self-directed and need little direct supervision; emphasizes the importance of Maslow’s higher needs; emphasizes worker freedom and autonomy, and how these interact with organizational demands; more effective than Theory X
McGregor’s Theory Z
Commitment to employees, evaluation, careers, control, decision-making, responsibility, concern for people; values long-term employment, slow and qualitative eval. of employees, informal and implicit control, believes employees are committed and loyal, group decision making and personal responsibility, and health and well-being of employee important
McGregor’s Theory Z assumes
Workers are motivated, but still need informal, implicit supervision
Human Relations Approach
Stems from Hawthorne’s research, which suggests that psychological factors are more important that physical aspects of the work environment (lighting, temp, breaks) in terms of productivity.
Who sets that ethical and professional standards for executive coaches?
International Coach Federation (ICF)
Business coaching
Generally intended as providing support in planning career or business moves, with coach acting as a guide and consultant.
Executive coaching
Focuses on the development of leadership qualities in the executive.
Career Coaching
Supporting the client in developing, modifying, or adjusting career objectives by determining career needs and desires and developing an appropriate plan
Ostroff, Kinicki, and Tamkins’ 3 layers of Organizational Culture
Observable artifacts (drawing meaning and interpretation from surface level actions like symbols and language); expoused values (beliefs or concepts endorsed by mgmt or the organization); basic assumptions (unobservable, but at the core of the organization)
Schneider’s Organizational Culture
Population of ppl define an organizations’s culture. Attraction-selection-attirtion (ASA) cycle. Ppl w/similar values drawn to organization and hired. Those not fitting pattern of shared values leave.
How much does turnover cost an organization?
1.5 times worker’s salary
Good predictors of turnover
Application info: previous job, education, specialized training, personal history
Correlates with job turnover
Length of time on the job, and expressed interest in staying
Flexible work schedules
Workers choose start and stop times. May be required to work core hours and must get 40 hours. Leads to lower levels of stress, more productivity, and job satisfaction, less absenteeism, and a healthier work-life balance. Doesn’t necessarily affect performance ratings.
Telecommuting
A work arrangement in which employees can work from home anywhere from one day a week to every day
Compressed work week
Shortne week by working longer but fewer days; associated with higher levels of satisfaction and higher supervisor ratings of performance; no significant findings regarding absenteeism or productivity
Which work shifts causes problems with sleep loss?
Night and swing
Which work shift leads to most health problems?
Night
Which work shift has greatest negative impact on social relationships?
Swing
Herzberg’s hygiene needs
physical and security
Herzberg’s motivator needs
social, esteem, and actualization
Global job satisfaction
overall satisfaction with work
Job facet satisfaction
satisfaction/dissatisfaction with particular aspects of the job (salary, supervisor, workspace)
Defining factors in satisfaction
employee’s expectations of compensation, level of challenge, responsibility, pleasantness of work environment, rx w/coworkers fairness of supervisors
Overall job satisfaction correlated with:
physical health, psychological health, and longevity
Overall job dissatisfaction results in:
physical and psychological disorders
Pay and job satisfaction
Related to perception that one is being fairly paid, vs. the actual amount paid
What types of jobs lead to dissatisfaction
jobs that are tiring, tedious, and repetitive, where opportunities for the use of skills is limited
Employee tenure
related to satisfaction; workers should be matched with jobs suited to skills and individual needs
Perception of satisfaction
Thought to be cognitively mediated to a degree; pos. ppl tend to feel more positive about job, including problematic aspects of job and setting
Job satisfaction and age
Older workers show higher level of satisfaction, younger workers more concerned with intrinsic factors (job challenge) vs extrinsic (security, salary)
Herzberg’s high hygiene + high motivation
Ideal situation in which employees are highly motivated and have few complaints
Herzberg’s high hygiene + low motivation
Employees with few complaints, but aren’t highly motivated. Work is seen simply as a paycheck
Herzberg’s low hygiene + high motivation
Employees are motivated and experience the work as exciting and challenging, but have multiple complaints and perceive the salaries and work conditions to be sub-par.
Herzberg’s low hygiene + low motivation
The worst work situation, resulting in unmotivated employees with multiple complaints
Four leadership styles of path-goal theory
Supportive (considerate and showing concern for subordinates); directive (communicating expectations and specific guidelines); participative (seeking out employee input); achievement-oriented (setting challenging goals, emphasizing excellence, and confidence in subordinates)
How does path-goal theory recommend leadership style is chosen?
Consider the situational variables (task and employee characteristics)
Gender findings for work-family conflict
Women experience greater work stress than men; women with children have highest levels of stress hormones; women have better coping strategies than men; having balance in work/family roles can have positive effect on self-esteem for women
Types of work-family conflict
Time-based; strain -based (strain from one role effects performance of another); behaviorally-based (conflict due to incompatible bx between two competing roles)
Type A/B in I/O field
Increased arousal for type A when deprived of work; learning new tasks equally stressful for both; social support stressful for Type A; work performance moderated by task variety for Type A; external locus of control lowers job satisfaction more for Type A than Type B individuals.
Type D personality
Defined as “distressed” and indicated negative affect and social inhibition that affect health.
Goal setting is most effective when:
tasks are difficult but less complex (Locke)
Goal setting and need for achievement
High need for achievement enhances goal-setting
Money and job performance
Money has a positive effect
Locke: Highest performance for goal-setting:
goals self-set with no monetary reward
Locke: Negative performance for goal-setting
Goals self-set with monetary rewards
Vroom’s key elements to motivation
Valence (value); instrumentality (belief that efforts will matter); and expectancy (used to determine if increased effort will be beneficial)
McCelland’s nAch
Need for achievement; preference for moderately difficult tasks, moderate risk, strive to reach goals,maintain high level of performance, prefer individual vs. group effort, work to completion, assume responsibility, committed to self-set goals, stay at jobs longer; gain satisfaction from task completion; seek recognition from others; tend to be highly correlated with job success
McCelland’s Need for Power
Desire for control, influence, and responsibility for others and resources, preoccupied with status, look for promotions/upward mobility, can use power for greater good of the group; common goal of people: complete agreement and compliance from those around them
McCelland’s Need for Affiliation
Emphasized establishment and maintenance of relationships, sensitive to criticism, relationship builders, conflict-avoidant, enjoy being an integral part of larger group, good team player, desire approval from others, and personal success tied to success of group; higher levels associated with entrepreneurial success
Maslow’s steps to self-actualization
Physiological needs, safety, love/belongingness, status/esteem, self-actualization
Process consultation
a “helping” relationships that facillitates ability for managers/employees/groups to achieve goals. Consultant works with and not for the client.
Major assumption of process consultation
Behavior must change before attitudes can change
Focus of process consultation
Distinguishing and/or changing disruptive behaviors that negatively impact normal social processes.
Role of consultant in process consultation
observes, gives feedback on alternative strategies
Role of client in process consultation
learns to own their problems, gains necessary skills to problem-solve, gain expertise in diagnosing organizational/group problems
Loss aversion model
In situations involving uncertainty and possible risk, people prefer avoiding losses to obtaining gains. Considered irrational because it is based on perception more than reality
Two corollaries of loss aversion
Risk aversion (less likely to take risks to obtain gains) and risk seeking (more likely to seek risks to avoid losses)
Sunk costs
The more one invests in something the more unreasonable it seems to abandon it
Disjunctive task
A group task in which one solution to a particular problem is selected from a pool of options. Creates high-quality results as opposed to high quantity. Best performer can bring up the whole group. Success requires at least one member have necessary expertise.
Conjunctive task
A group task that cannot be completely successful until all members of the group have completed their portion of the job; therefore the least-skilled worker determines the speed and quality of the work.
Aggregate task
A combination of two or more group tasks or projects
Additive task
A group project or task that can be undertaken by aggregating individual members’ efforts or contributions
Compensatory task
A task or project a group can complete by averaging together individual members’ solutions and recommendations
Maximizing
Calling for high quantity of product as opposed to high quality
Herzberg’s low hygiene + low motivation
The worst work situation, resulting in unmotivated employees with multiple complaints
Four leadership styles of path-goal theory
Supportive (considerate and showing concern for subordinates); directive (communicating expectations and specific guidelines); participative (seeking out employee input); achievement-oriented (setting challenging goals, emphasizing excellence, and confidence in subordinates)
How does path-goal theory recommend leadership style is chosen?
Consider the situational variables (task and employee characteristics)
Gender findings for work-family conflict
Women experience greater work stress than men; women with children have highest levels of stress hormones; women have better coping strategies than men; having balance in work/family roles can have positive effect on self-esteem for women
Types of work-family conflict
Time-based; strain -based (strain from one role effects performance of another); behaviorally-based (conflict due to incompatible bx between two competing roles)
Type A/B in I/O field
Increased arousal for type A when deprived of work; learning new tasks equally stressful for both; social support stressful for Type A; work performance moderated by task variety for Type A; external locus of control lowers job satisfaction more for Type A than Type B individuals.
Type D personality
Defined as “distressed” and indicated negative affect and social inhibition that affect health.
Goal setting is most effective when:
tasks are difficult but less complex (Locke)
Goal setting and need for achievement
High need for achievement enhances goal-setting
Money and job performance
Money has a positive effect
Locke: Highest performance for goal-setting:
goals self-set with no monetary reward
Locke: Negative performance for goal-setting
Goals self-set with monetary rewards
Vroom’s key elements to motivation
Valence (value); instrumentality (belief that efforts will matter); and expectancy (used to determine if increased effort will be beneficial)
McCelland’s nAch
Need for achievement; preference for moderately difficult tasks, moderate risk, strive to reach goals,maintain high level of performance, prefer individual vs. group effort, work to completion, assume responsibility, committed to self-set goals, stay at jobs longer; gain satisfaction from task completion; seek recognition from others; tend to be highly correlated with job success
McCelland’s Need for Power
Desire for control, influence, and responsibility for others and resources, preoccupied with status, look for promotions/upward mobility, can use power for greater good of the group; common goal of people: complete agreement and compliance from those around them
McCelland’s Need for Affiliation
Emphasized establishment and maintenance of relationships, sensitive to criticism, relationship builders, conflict-avoidant, enjoy being an integral part of larger group, good team player, desire approval from others, and personal success tied to success of group; higher levels associated with entrepreneurial success
Maslow’s steps to self-actualization
Physiological needs, safety, love/belongingness, status/esteem, self-actualization
Process consultation
a “helping” relationships that facillitates ability for managers/employees/groups to achieve goals. Consultant works with and not for the client.
Major assumption of process consultation
Behavior must change before attitudes can change
Focus of process consultation
Distinguishing and/or changing disruptive behaviors that negatively impact normal social processes.
Role of consultant in process consultation
observes, gives feedback on alternative strategies
Role of client in process consultation
learns to own their problems, gains necessary skills to problem-solve, gain expertise in diagnosing organizational/group problems
Loss aversion model
In situations involving uncertainty and possible risk, people prefer avoiding losses to obtaining gains. Considered irrational because it is based on perception more than reality
Two corollaries of loss aversion
Risk aversion (less likely to take risks to obtain gains) and risk seeking (more likely to seek risks to avoid losses)
Sunk costs
The more one invests in something the more unreasonable it seems to abandon it
Disjunctive task
A group task in which one solution to a particular problem is selected from a pool of options. Creates high-quality results as opposed to high quantity. Best performer can bring up the whole group. Success requires at least one member have necessary expertise.
Conjunctive task
A group task that cannot be completely successful until all members of the group have completed their portion of the job; therefore the least-skilled worker determines the speed and quality of the work.
Aggregate task
A combination of two or more group tasks or projects
Additive task
A group project or task that can be undertaken by aggregating individual members’ efforts or contributions
Compensatory task
A task or project a group can complete by averaging together individual members’ solutions and recommendations
Maximizing
Calling for high quantity of product as opposed to high quality
