CBT Flashcards
Shaping
Using selective reinforcement (approximations) to modify a general response to a specific response; it is building a behavior by dividing it into small increments or steps and then teaching one step at a time until the desired behavior is achieved; steps become a series of intermediate goals. AKA Reinforcing Successive Approximations
Thinning
A procedure used with intermittent schedules of reinforcement; in thinning, reinforcement frequency is on a decreasing schedule
Response cost
A procedure in Operant Conditioning in which certain responses result in loss of a valued commodity; the intent of such procedures is to produce punishment
Response generalization
In conditioning, the phenomenon in which reinforcement of some forms of behavior results in an increased probability not only of these forms but also of similar and non-reinforced forms
Induction
In conditioning, the phenomenon in which reinforcement of some forms of behavior result in an increased probability not only of these forms, but also of similar and non-reinforced forms. AKA Response Generalization
Extinction
When the rate of a previous behavior decreases following the discontinuation of reinforcement
Spontaneous recovery
When a decrease in behavior (extinction) is not permanent, so the behavior reemerges over time
Extinction bursts
Occasional bursts of behavior during the extinction process, even though the overall frequency is reducing
Cue Deflation
When a compound stimulus controls behavior, extinction to one element of the compound can increase responding to the other element through a process called cue deflation
Habituation
A decrease in responsiveness to a particular stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to that stimulus
Selective attention
The ability to attend to one stimulus among a mass of competing stimuli
Inhibition
The blocking or prevention of a person’s ability to remember old information or learn new information
Secondary Reinforcement
An Operant Conditioning term that refers to reinforcement by means of a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing qualities by having been associated with a reinforcer
Pseudoconditioning
A Classical Conditioning term for elicitation of a response by a previously neutral stimulus when it is presented following a series of occurrences of a conditioned stimulus (e.g., after flinching each time an electric shock is administered, a person is likely to flinch if a loud tone is then presented)
Who demonstrated the concept of taste aversion?
John Garcia in rats. Gave them saccharin-flavored water followed by apomorphine; which causes nausea; other rats received saline after the saccharine flavored water. Rats that had nausea would drink very little water while the other rats would drink a lot.
Tolman
Best known for his work on rats and the concept of cognitive maps; Considred one of the pioneers of Cognitive Psychology
Kohler
Known for insight learning and his work with bonobos (or rhesus monkeys)
Kandel
Studied neural mechanisms underlying associative and nonassociative learning in sea slugs
Covert sensitization
A form of aversive conditioning in which the frequency of undesirable behavior is lessened by mentally associating it with unpleasant mental images
Rescorla-Wagner Model
A mathematical account of how associative strength grows during Pavlonian Conditioning. Looks at associative strength (level of knowledge about the CS-US relationship), the conditioning trial number, the change (a measure of learning), and the maximum amount of conditioning in a situation. This reflects the salience of the CS and the US.
The Rescoral-Wagner Model explains why:
typical learning curves for Pavlonian conditioning are gradual, negatively decelerating; conditioning is faster with stimuli that are more salient (i.e. overshadowing); when two or more stimuli predict a US, conditioning occurs to the one with the strongest predictive validity; and if the US is already predicted by one CS, conditioning will not occur to another CS that provides redundant information (i.e. blocking).
Sensitization
A process in which a stimulus or a context causes an individual to subsequently display a stronger response to another stimulus than would otherwise be expected
Perceptual Masking
A phenomenon that occurs when one stimulus (the masking stimulus) prevents the perception of a second stimulus (the target stimulus) because they occur close together in time. The individual only perceives the masking stimulus.
Operant Extinction
The procedure of withholding reinforcement for a previously-reinforced voluntary behavior; there is a gradual reduction in the behavior until it ceases completely
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Certain factors (hygiene and motivation) in the workplace cause job satisfaction, while others lead to dissatisfaction
Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory
A theory of avoidance learning, holding that avoidance behaviors is the result of both classical conditioning and negative reinforcement; emotions are a direct result of an analysis of the surroundings
Temporal Learning
A Classical Conditioning concept with no counterpart in Operant Conditioning. The passage of time serves as a CS. The body’s natural circadian rhythms are thought to play a role in temporal conditioning.
Trace Conditioning
A form of conditioning involving the brief presentation of a conditioned stimulus, followed by a period of time during which no stimulus is presented, and then the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus, leading eventually to a conditioned response based on the memory (trace) of a previous stimulus
Delay conditioning
A form of classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus by a significant time period and the individual learns to withhold its conditioned response
Temporal Delay
A technical term for a pause
Latent Conditioning
A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement
Skinner
Developed the concepts of Operant Conditioning, elaborating on Throndike’s theories of Instrumental Learning
Fading
A procedure involving the gradual removal of prompts
Latent learning
A type of incidental learning that occurs without any apparent reinforcement or reward
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the spatial relationships among cues in a particular environment. Tolman’s work with cognitive maps meant that the concepts of stimulus-outcome or stimulus-response were not explaining all learning
Occam’s Razor
The principle of parsimony; when given to equally valid explanations for a phenomenon, one should embrace the less-complicated
Insight learning
Learning that utilizes a type of cognitive trial and error as opposed to the physical trial and error associated with Operant Conditioning; an individual looks at a problem, then looks at the tolls available, and then formulates a plan without ever actually trying it first
Counterfactual thinking
The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occured but did not
Cognitive triad
A triad of types of negative thought present in depression
Escape Conditioning
A form of Operant Conditioning involving negative reinforcement, in which an individual learns to terminate an unpleasant stimulus. Learning to avoid unpleasant experiences by first learning fear cues that signal unpleasant stimulus/event, then learning to escape the fear-eliciting cues
Higher-Order Conditioning
Used when an experimenter wants to turn a neutral stimulus into an unconditioned stimulus. Once a CS elicits a CR, a new CS is paired with the first, without the US until the new CS elicits the original CR.
Behavioral contrast
A pattern of responding in which an organism seems to evaluate a reward relative to other rewards. Positive contrast occurs when the rate or magnitude of reward for a behavior increases, and negative contrast occurs when the rate or magnitude of reward for a behavior decreases.
Classical Extinction
Refers to a cessation of a conditioned response after it is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, an intermittent schedule works better than a continuous one to maintain the learned behavior; there are four different variable schedules (fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable ratio)
John B. Watson
Established the psychological school of behaviorism and primarily studied classical conditioning, rather than operant conditioning
Aaron T. Beck
Created cognitive therapy. He utilized certain behavioral techniques but did not define behavioral contrast.
Post-Reinforcement Pause
A temporary pause in responding that occurs following a reinforced response when behavior is maintained on a ratio schedule with a high value
Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE)
Behavior is harder to extinguish if it has been maintained on an Intermittent Schedule of Reinforcement than if it was continuously reinforced
Concurrent Schedule or Reinforcement
Procedure in Operant Conditioning in which two or more separate reinforcement schedules are in effect, each associated with a different response; the subject has free choice among the different responses. Used to study choice behavior.
The Matching Law
Distributing responses in proportion to rate or magnitude of reinforcement
According to the Rescorla-Wagner Model, the animal is theorized to learn:
from the discrepancy between what it predicted would happen and what actually happened
Stimulus Control
An Operant Conditioning term, mostly used in reference to behavior modification. Means that the probability of that behavior occurring depends upon the likelihood that it will be reinforced or punished, as signaled by the cues or stimuli that are present
Dual-Process Theory
The phenomenon of dishabituation results from the effects of sensitization superimposed on an ongoing habituation process.
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement gained by watching another person
Successive Discrimination
A term for operant conditioning in which an individual is trained to perform two or more tasks at the same time, such as reinforcing a rat in a maze to turn right when it sees red and left when it sees blue
Feedback Processes
Response pattern that increases the accuracy of a response without changing response strength; like a student tuing a guitar; each adjustment leads to a better-tuned guitar, but it does not lead to more playing nor does it decrease the amount of time it takes to tune the guitar the next time.
Overjustification
A phenomenon in operant conditioning in which reinforcement decreases the level of time and effort an individual chooses to dedicate to a particular behavior.
Satiation
Temporary loss of a reinforcer’s effectiveness due to its repeated presentation
Drive-Reduction Theory of reinforcement
The effectiveness of something as a source or reinforcement increases as the individual becomes deprived of that thing
Self-Instructional Training
Cognitive-behavioral therapy model, originally designed by Meichenbaum to help hyperactive and inattentive children by substituting adaptive self-statments to maladaptive thoughts.
Self-Control Therapy
Used by Rehm (1977) to treat depression, a form of cognitive therapy training, purposed to learn about one’s cognitions and behavior, to increase resilience to depression.
Expectancy Theory
A theory of motivation about the associations individuals made regarding expected outcomes, and the contributions they believe that can make toward these outcomes. A person is motivated when effort, performance, nd motivation are linked together.
Elaborative Rehearsal
A strategy used when encoding information to facilitate the formation of a long-lasting memory by associating new information with information that one already has stored in long-term memory
Overlearning
A concept according to which newly acquired skills should be practiced well beyond the point of initial mastery to see an increased persistence of learning over time
Maintenance rehearsal
Involves simple rote repetition, and mainly helps short-term memory retention
Convergent Thinking
A type of critical thinking in which an individual follows well-established patterns of reasoning in order to arrive at a single best solution to a problem. A number of possible solutions are analyzed to determine the one that will be most successful.
Divergent Thinking
Thinking that moves away in diverging directions so as to involve a variety of aspects, and which sometimes lead to novel ideas and solutions; associated with creativity.
Top-down processing
The use of knowledge and assumptions in the processing of any stimulus, beyond simple sensory input
Proactive Inhibition
When old information interferes with the ability to recall new information, inhibition if similar to masking, but it involves learning and the recall of information while masking is about perception.
Retroactive inhibition
When new information interferes with old information
Participant Modeling
Bandura: A type of modeling in which the therapist performs a desired behavior while the client watches, and through the use of aids, the client progresses toward the ability to perform the desired behavior on his or her own
Symbolic modeling
Modeling through the use of pictures, cartoon, film, or any method other than live interaction
Functional Analysis
Skinner: a behavioral technique used to create a detailed description of a behavior, and identification of any environmental contingencies that contribute to and sustain the behavior
Contingency Management
A technique used in behavior therapy in which undesirable behaviors are identified, alternative desirable behaviors are identified, and the alternate behaviors are systematically reinforced with predetermined rewards.
Three-term Contingency
Developed by B.F. Skinner and used in the analysis of behavior, it is the theory that every behavioral act can be broken down into three fundamental parts: the discriminative stimulus, the operant response, and the reinforcer/punisher
Autosuggestion
Hypnotic adoption of an idea that one has created for oneself, such as repetition of verbal statements, in order to change behavior.
Inattentional blindness
The phenomenon in which a person, whole paying attention to other events in a scene, fails to notice the sudden and unexpected appearance of an object
Perceptual span
The number of letters and spaces perceived in the time between saccadic eye movements while reading
Implosive Therapy differs from flooding in what 3 ways?
(1) Uses the patient’s imagination of intense encounters with the feared stimulus (rather than direct exposure); (2) uses imagined scenes that are exaggerated by the therapist; (3) provoked anxiety is addressed within a psychodynamic approach.
Reciprocal Inhibition
Wolpe: a procedure in which counterconditioning is used to replace an undesirable conditioned response with an incompatible and more desirable conditioned response to the same conditioned stimulus.
Apraxia
A neurological disorder that affects a person’s ability to perform learned and purposeful movements, despite the fact that there is nothing physiologically wrong with motor function, sensation, attention, coordination, motivation, or comprehension
Ideational apraxia
Person cannot conceive of a goal,so actions are haphazard and disorganized
Ideomotor apraxia
Person can conceive of a goal, but cannot conceive of component cations required to achieve that goal
Motor Apraxia
The person can conceive of a goal and component actions, but cannot perform the actions
Agnosia
Loss of ability to recognize objects, person, sounds, shapes, or smells while the sense is not defective nor is there any significant memory loss. it is usually associated with brain injury, neurological illness, particularly after damage to the temporal lobe.
Output Interference Theory
Occurs when the act of recalling information from memory interferes with the ability to recall other information; is due to the limited capacity and duration of working memory, and if often occurs when people are prevented from rehearsing newly-learned information.
Memory decay
When something new is learned, a neurochemical “memory trace” is formed, but over time this trace tends to disintegrate. (AKA trace-decay hypothesis)
Scaffolding
Vygotsky: A proactive approach to teaching in which the teacher assists the child in acquisition of new concepts that are just beyond the child’s current level of understanding
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky: referring to one’s current level of knowledge or understanding
Semantic memory
Used to store facts, concepts, and general knowledge. It is a subcategory of explicit memory (AKA declarative memory), and therefore only includes memory that can be consciously recalled. Available in working memory for longer periods of time than is episodic memory.
Episodic memory
AKA: autobiographical memory, the explicit memory for events; includes time, place, and associated emotions
Method of Loci
A mnemonic strategy in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations
Overwriting Hypothesis
Memories are altered by later events, so original memories no longer exist
Word-supeirority effect
A phenomenon in which a person is better at recognizing a letter when it appears in the context of a familiar word, then when it appears in isolation.
Dichotic listening
Two stories are presented simultaneously, one to each ear, and the person must follow one while ignoring the other
Three components of working memory:
The central executive (directs one’s attention to various tasks that make use of the information in working memory); the phonological loop (serves to maintain verbal information in working memory by continuously repeating it); and the visuospatial scratchpad (the visual portion of working memory)
Explicit memory
Consists of information stored and retrieved explicitly from the external world; this information is about a specific event that has occurred at a specific time and place.
Implicit memory
AKA procedural memory; the long-term memory of skills and procedures or “how-to
knowledge.
Primary memory
An archaic term referring to the first level of memory in the Dual-Store Model of memory. Later replaced with the concept of short-term memory.
False dementia
Clinical features resembling demential that are not due to organic brain dysfunction or disease
False belief fallacy
A misconception resulting from incorrect reasoning
Huntington’s
A progressive neurodegenerative genetic disorder, which affects muscle coordination and leads to cognitive decline and dementia
Parkinson’s
A neurological disease that affects muscle control and is characterized by tremors, lack of coordination and difficulty walking
Three stages of memory
Encoding, retention, retrieval
Causes and characteristics of difficulty with episodic memory
Declines naturally in elderly persons, and more severely in cases of age-associated memory impairment; impaired by damage to either the medial temporal lobes or the mediodorsal thalamus; both anterograde and retrograde amnesia for episodic memory follow such damage. (May still have flashbulb memories - memories for traumatic events)
The ability to form new long-term memories is impaired in people with:
Damage to medial-temporal lobe structures, including the hippocampus, or with damage to the medial region of the thalamus (Korsakoff’s syndrome).
Long-term memory involves structural changes:
to neurons and synapses, which requires protein synthesis within the affected neurons
Implicit memory is typically not impaired in
individuals with amnesia following brain injury, or with age-related memory impairments
Zeigarnik Effect
The tendency of people to be better at remembering uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks
Explicit memory includes:
Episodic memory (personal experiences) and semantic memory (factual info)
Explicit memory is impaired in:
Alzheimer’s and individuals with amnesia following damage to the medial-temporal lobe region or the medial thalamus
Sensory adaptation
The tendency of the senses to become less and less able to perceive a particular stimulus with lengthened exposure due to sensory receptor fatigue
James-Lange Theory
Emotional states are determined by responses of the ANS. Physiological responses give rise to corresponding emotions.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Physiological changes are caused by emotions; emotions result when the thalamus sends a message to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological reaction.
General Adaptation Syndrome
The sequence of physiological reactions to prolonged and intense stress; the sequence consist of the alarm reaction, the state of resistance, and the state of exhaustion.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Performance increases with cognitive arousal but only to a certain point; when levels of arousal become too high, performance will decrease.
Disqualifying the positive
Continually “shooting down” positive experiences for arbitrary, ad hoc reasons
Mental filter
Focusing exclusively on certain, usually negative or upsetting, aspects of something while ignoring the rest, like a tiny imperfection in one’s clothing.
