Lesson 7: Training Design Flashcards
1
Q
What is training design?
A
Training design involves preparing and planning events to facilitate learning.
2
Q
How does training design affect learner engagement?
A
The design of a training program influences learner engagement, which is the extent to which trainees are cognitively, physically, and emotionally immersed in the training content and the learning process.
3
Q
What decisions are involved in training design?
A
Training design involves many important decisions, such as whether to purchase a training program from a vendor or design it in-house, what content to include, what training methods to use, how to provide trainees with opportunities for practice, and what strategies to include to maximize the potential effects of practice on learning and retention.
4
Q
What is the starting point that connects needs analysis to training design?
A
The starting point that connects the needs analysis to training design is writing training objectives.
5
Q
4.1: Training Design Activities
A
6
Q
What is a training objective?
A
A training objective is a statement that answers the question, “What should trainees be able to do at the end of a training program?”
7
Q
What do training objectives describe?
A
Training objectives describe the knowledge and skills to be acquired, as well as the expected on-the-job behavior and performance.
8
Q
Why are training objectives important?
A
Training objectives are an important link between the needs analysis stage and the other stages of the training and development process. They help to ensure that the training program addresses the identified needs and serves the intended purposes for trainees, trainers, and managers.
9
Q
When should training objectives be written?
A
Training objectives should be written prior to designing a training program. They provide a clear direction for designing the training and help to ensure that the training program is effective in achieving its intended outcomes.
10
Q
What is the difference between learning and performance in the context of training?
A
Learning involves the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, and attitudes, while performance involves the use of these new skills, knowledge, and attitudes on the job.
11
Q
4.2: Purpose of Training Objectives
A
12
Q
What are the four key elements of a training objective?
A
1) who is to perform the desired behavior,
2) what is the actual behavior to be used to demonstrate mastery of the training content or objective,
3) where and when is the behavior to be demonstrated and evaluated.
4) what is the standard by which the behavior will be judged.
13
Q
Why is it important to specify who is to perform the desired behavior in a training objective?
A
Specifying who is to perform the desired behavior helps to ensure that the training is targeted to the appropriate audience and that the training objectives are relevant to their job roles and responsibilities.
14
Q
What is Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives?
A
Bloom’s taxonomy is a framework for categorizing learning objectives into six main categories, which are ordered from simple to complex and concrete to abstract. The categories are: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create.
15
Q
Why is it important to specify the conditions under which the behavior will be demonstrated and evaluated?
A
Specifying the conditions under which the behavior will be demonstrated and evaluated helps to ensure that the training objectives are realistic and applicable to the actual job context.
16
Q
hat is the standard by which the behavior will be judged in a training objective?
A
The standard by which the behavior will be judged specifies the level of performance that is expected from the trainee and provides a basis for evaluating whether the training objectives have been met.
17
Q
What is an example of a training objective that includes the four key elements?
A
An example of a training objective that includes the four key elements is: “The sales representative (who) will be able to make 10 calls a day to new customers (what) in the territory assigned (where and when) and will be able to generate three (30 percent) sales worth at least $500 from these calls (how or the criterion).”
18
Q
Why should training objectives closely resemble the task analysis?
A
Training objectives that closely resemble the task analysis are more likely to be relevant and applicable to the job context, and are more likely to be approved, learned, and used on the job.
19
Q
What is a task analysis?
A
A task analysis is the process of breaking down a job into its component tasks and identifying the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform those tasks.
An example of a task analysis for the job of a receptionist could include tasks such as answering phones, greeting visitors, handling incoming and outgoing mail, scheduling appointments, and maintaining records.
20
Q
What are the benefits of writing training objectives that resemble job behaviors?
A
Writing training objectives that resemble job behaviors helps to ensure that the training is relevant and applicable to the job context, and helps to increase the likelihood that the trainees will use the skills and knowledge they have acquired on the job.
21
Q
What are the three key components of a well-written training objective?
A
The three key components of a well-written training objective are: performance, condition, and criterion.
22
Q
What does the performance component of a training objective describe?
A
The performance component of a training objective describes what the trainee will be able to do after the training and what work behavior they will be able to display.
23
Q
What does the condition component of a training objective describe?
A
The condition component of a training objective describes the tools, time, and situation under which the trainee is expected to perform the behavior, and where and when the behavior will occur.
24
Q
What does the criterion component of a training objective describe?
A
The criterion component of a training objective describes the level of acceptable performance, standard, or criteria against which performance will be judged.
25
Why is it important to include all three components in a training objective?
Including all three components in a training objective helps to ensure that the objective is clear, specific, and measurable, and provides a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the training program.
26
4.3: Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Objectives
27
Why should representative workers be involved in the development of training objectives?
Involving representative workers in the development of training objectives helps to ensure that the objectives are relevant to their job roles and responsibilities, and increases their buy-in and motivation to participate in the training.
28
Who should review and approve the training objectives?
The training objectives should be reviewed and approved by the managers and supervisors of the trainees, as well as by the team consisting of the trainer, trainees, and their supervisors.
29
What is the purchase-or-design decision?
The purchase-or-design decision is the process of deciding whether a training program should be designed in-house by the HR or training staff or by an external consultant or vendor.
30
What are the advantages of designing a training program in-house?
Designing a training program in-house can be more cost-effective, allows for greater customization to the specific needs of the organization, and helps to build the internal capacity and expertise of the organization.
31
What are the advantages of purchasing a training program from an external vendor?
Purchasing a training program from an external vendor can save time and resources, can provide access to expertise and resources that may not be available in-house, and can provide a fresh perspective on training needs and solutions.
32
What is the make-or-purchase decision in training and development?
The make-or-purchase decision refers to whether an organization should create training materials in-house or purchase them from external sources.
33
What are the main reasons for outsourcing training and development programs?
The main reasons for outsourcing training and development programs are cost savings, time savings, and improvements in compliance and accuracy.
34
When is it more economical for an organization to purchase training materials rather than develop them in-house?
It is more economical for an organization to purchase training materials when they will only be used once or twice.
35
What are the advantages of using packaged training programs?
The advantages of using packaged training programs include high quality, immediate delivery, ancillary services (tests, videos), potential for customization, learning from others’ implementation experience, extensive testing, and often a lower price than internally developed programs.
36
What are the advantages of developing training programs internally?
The advantages of developing training programs internally include security and confidentiality, use of the organization’s language and values, internal content expertise, understanding of the specific target audience and organization, and pride and credibility from having a customized program.
37
What are some factors to consider when deciding whether to design a training program in-house or purchase one from an external vendor/consultant?
Factors to consider when making the purchase-or-design decision include the organization's needs, available resources, cost, time, level of expertise required, and whether organization-specific content is needed.
38
What is a cost–benefit analysis, and why is it important in the purchase-or-design decision for training programs?
A cost–benefit analysis is a comparison of the costs and benefits of purchasing versus designing a training program. It is important in making the purchase-or-design decision because it helps determine which option is most cost-effective.
39
What expertise is needed to design a training program in-house, and why is this important to consider?
Designing a training program requires expertise in areas such as training methods and the principles and theories of learning. If the human resource department does not have this expertise in-house, it will need to purchase all or part of a training program.
40
What is a factor to consider in terms of the timeline for training?
If there is a need or desire to begin training as soon as possible, then the organization will need to purchase a training program, as designing a new program may take too much time.
41
What is a factor to consider in terms of the number of employees who need to be trained?
If a large number of employees need to receive training now and in the future, designing a new training program in-house makes more sense.
42
What are the different options for purchasing training products and services?
Organizations can purchase an off-the-shelf training program, hire a consultant to design and/or deliver a training program, or deliver a purchased training program in-house using their own training staff or subject-matter experts.
43
What is a request for proposal, and why is it important when choosing a vendor or consultant to design and/or deliver a training program?
A request for proposal is a document that outlines an organization's needs and requirements for a training program and asks potential vendors or consultants to provide a proposal for designing and/or delivering the program.
It is important because it helps ensure that the chosen vendor or consultant can meet the organization's needs and requirements.
44
What is a request for proposal (RFP), and what is its purpose in the purchase of training products and services?
An RFP is a document that outlines an organization’s training and project needs and is used to solicit proposals from vendors and consultants. Its purpose is to help the organization find a vendor or consultant that can provide the best solution and is a good match for the organization.
45
What information should be included in an RFP for training products and services?
An RFP should provide detailed information about the organization’s training needs and the nature of the project, a detailed statement of the work, instructions on how to respond, and a schedule for the RFP and the selection process.
46
Why is it important to prepare a detailed RFP when searching for a vendor?
Creating a detailed RFP helps ensure that the organization purchases what it really needs and communicates its training needs and required project to stakeholders and potential vendors. Failure to do so can result in purchasing a program that is unnecessary and more costly than necessary.
47
What are the potential consequences of failing to prepare a detailed RFP when searching for a vendor?
Failing to prepare a detailed RFP can result in an organization purchasing a program that is unnecessary and more costly than necessary.
48
What are some things to consider when creating an effective RFP for training products and services?
Some things to consider include having a clear vision of your overall learning strategy, creating proper scope for the project, developing a vendor pre-qualification checklist, creating a vendor scorecard, using a template if one exists, being candid about the project, designing a request-for-information questionnaire, and allowing sufficient time for responses.
49
What is the importance of designing the training content when developing a training program?
Designing the training content is crucial because it must be based on the training needs and objectives, and it should be relevant and meaningful to trainees to facilitate learning and retention.
50
Why is it important to conduct a thorough needs analysis prior to designing a training program?
Conducting a thorough needs analysis helps trainers determine the required training content based on the organization's needs and objectives, and helps ensure that the training program is effective.
51
How can training content be determined?
Training content can be determined by analyzing the tasks or skill requirements of the job, comparing employees' current levels of knowledge and skills to the organization's desired levels as indicated by performance goals or objectives, and reviewing research on training effectiveness.
52
What is the importance of consulting subject-matter experts when determining training content?
Subject-matter experts can specify the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform a task or a job and determine the appropriate training content.
53
What is the importance of legislation in determining training content?
In cases where training is legislated, such as the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS), the content of training is specified in the legislation and requirements for employee certification.
54
What are some common areas that should be part of the content of a privacy training program?
Privacy-related background information, key terms, applicable privacy laws, key privacy concepts, organization's holdings of personal information, policies and procedures relating to privacy and data security, introduction to privacy officer/team, and staff member's personal responsibilities relating to privacy/data security.
55
What are some different ways to classify training methods?
Training methods can be classified by active versus passive methods, one-way versus two-way communication, or informational versus experiential.
56
What are the three categories of training methods based on where they take place?
The three categories are on-the-job training, off-the-job training in a classroom with an instructor, and technology-based training.
57
What is the best approach to training for many organizations?
A **blended training** approach that combines classroom training, on-the-job training, and computer technology is often the best approach.
58
How does productive response differ from passive response in training?
**Productive responses** involve actively using the training content, while passive responses involve simply watching, listening, or imitating the trainer.
59
What should determine the most appropriate training methods for a program?
The objectives of the training program and the training content should determine the most appropriate training methods.
60
How do training methods that encourage active participation during training enhance learning?
Active participation during training enhances learner engagement and learning.
61
What is practice in the context of training?
Practice is physical or mental rehearsal of a task, skill, or knowledge in order to achieve some level of proficiency in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge.
62
What is active practice?
Active practice refers to giving trainees opportunities to practice the task or use the knowledge being learned during training.
63
What is the importance of incorporating active practice into training programs?
Active practice not only maximizes learning but also facilitates learner engagement and a change in behaviour.
64
What are the conditions of practice that can be implemented before and during training to enhance the effectiveness of active practice?
Pre-training conditions of practice: setting goals, providing feedback, and increasing self-efficacy
During training conditions of practice: variability of practice, distributed practice, and contextual interference.
65
What are pre-training interventions?
Pre-training interventions are activities or materials provided before a training program or practice session to improve the potential for learning as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of practice during training.
66
What are some examples of pre-training interventions?
Some examples of pre-training interventions include attentional advice, metacognitive strategies, advance organizers, goal orientation, preparatory information, and pre-practice briefs.
67
4.4: Conditions of Practice
68
What is attentional advice in training?
Attentional advice is a pre-training intervention that involves providing trainees with information about the task process and general task strategies that can help them learn to perform a task. It helps to focus or direct trainees’ attention on specific aspects of the training or practice session and task strategies and to assimilate the training material with existing knowledge.
69
What is metacognition?
Metacognition is a self-regulatory process that helps people guide their learning and performance by thinking about their thinking. It allows people to assess and adjust their progress and strategies while learning to perform a task.
70
What are the two primary functions of metacognition?
The two primary functions of metacognition are monitoring and control.
71
What does monitoring involve in metacognition?
Monitoring involves identifying the task, checking and evaluating one’s progress, and predicting the outcomes of that progress.
72
What does control involve in metacognition?
Control involves decisions about where to allocate one’s resources, the specific steps to complete a task, the speed and intensity required to work on a task, and the prioritization of activities.
73
How can metacognitive strategies enhance learning?
Metacognitive strategies can enhance learning by helping trainees self-regulate their learning of a task, identify any problems they are having, and modify their learning strategies accordingly.
74
What are advance organizers in the context of training programs?
Advance organizers are structures or frameworks provided to trainees to help them assimilate and integrate training content.
The purpose of advance organizers is to provide a structure or framework for organizing training material and integrating it with existing knowledge.
75
What forms can advance organizers take?
Advance organizers can take the form of outlines, text, diagrams, and graphic organizers.
76
How effective are advance organizers in improving learning?
Research has found that advance organizers are effective in improving cognitive and skill-based learning, particularly for highly complex and factual material and for low-ability trainees.
77
What is goal orientation in training?
Goal orientation in training refers to the type of goal set during training, either a learning goal orientation that focuses on the learning process, or a performance goal orientation that focuses on achieving specific performance outcomes.
78
What is the difference between learning and performance goal orientations?
Learning goal orientations focus on the process of learning and skill acquisition, while performance goal orientations focus on achieving specific performance outcomes.
79
How can goal orientation be used as a pre-training intervention?
Trainees can set a goal at the start of the training or prior to a practice session. Learning goals tend to be more effective for learning because they focus trainees’ attention on the process of learning and skill acquisition.
80
What is preparatory information?
Preparatory information involves providing trainees with information about what to expect during training and practice sessions.
81
What are the benefits of providing preparatory information to trainees?
Providing preparatory information helps trainees to prepare for events that will take place during practice, develop strategies to overcome performance obstacles, and minimize the effects of stress. Trainees who are provided with preparatory information are better prepared to learn and perform a task.
82
What types of tasks is preparatory information particularly useful for learning?
Preparatory information is particularly useful for learning to perform stressful tasks in which the ability to cope and overcome obstacles is critical for task performance.
83
What are the positive effects of preparatory information on learning outcomes?
Research on the effects of preparatory information has found that it has positive effects on skill-based learning and affective learning outcomes, such as self-efficacy, attitudes toward training, and intention to use training material on the job.
84
What are pre-practice briefs?
Pre-practice briefs are sessions in which team members establish their roles, responsibilities, and performance expectations prior to a team practice session.
Pre-practice briefs are specific to team training.
The purpose of pre-practice briefs is to improve team practice sessions, especially for tasks that are fast-paced and stressful..
85
What are the conditions of practice during training?
The conditions of practice during training include massed or distributed practice, whole or part learning, overlearning, task sequencing, and feedback and knowledge of results.
86
What is massed practice?
Massed practice is a type of practice in which there are virtually no rest periods between segments of a training program, such as when the training is conducted in a single session instead of being divided into several sessions with breaks or rest periods between them.
87
What is distributed practice?
Distributed practice is a type of practice in which there are rest intervals during the practice session, and the training is divided into several sessions with breaks or rest periods between them.
88
Which type of practice results in better retention of material and higher performance
Research has shown that material that was learned under distributed practice is retained longer.
A review of research on practice conditions found that distributed practice sessions resulted in higher performance than massed practice conditions.
89
Why do trainers prefer distributed practice over massed practice?
Trainers prefer distributed practice because trainees retain material over many months rather than just knowing it for the course, test, or simulation. It is also more effective when practice periods are spread over time, rather than massed together.
90
For which type of trainees is distributed practice most effective?
Distributed practice is most effective for trainees with little or no experience, when the rest periods are shorter early on but longer later in training, and for learning motor skills.
91
What is whole learning?
Whole learning is a type of learning in which all of the training material is learned and practiced at one time.
92
What is part learning?
Part learning is a type of learning in which the task is broken down into smaller parts and each part is learned and practiced separately.
93
Which learning strategy is more effective for trainees with high intelligence?
Whole learning is more effective when the trainee has high intelligence, practice is distributed, the task organization of the training material is high, and task complexity is low.
94
When is it best for trainees to learn and practice each part of a task separately?
Generally speaking, when the task itself is composed of relatively clear and different parts or sub-tasks, it is best for trainees to learn and practice each part at a time and then perform all parts in one whole sequence.
95
When does a strategy of whole learning make more sense?
If the task itself is relatively simple and consists of a number of closely related tasks, then a strategy of whole learning makes more sense.
96
What is overlearning?
Overlearning refers to learning something until the behavior becomes automatic by providing continued opportunities for practice even after the trainee has mastered the task.
97
When is overlearning an effective way to train people?
Overlearning is an effective way to train people for emergency responses or for complex skills when there is little time to think in a job situation. It is also important for skills that employees might not need to use very often on the job.
98
What is automaticity?
Automaticity refers to the performance of a skill to the point at which little attention from the brain is required to respond correctly.
99
How does overlearning benefit retention of training material?
Overlearning has been found to be an effective method for improving retention for both cognitive and physical tasks, and the greater the overlearning, the longer the resulting retention of the training material.
100
When do the benefits of overlearning for retention begin to decrease?
The benefits of overlearning for retention are reduced by half after 19 days and to zero after five to six weeks. Thus, additional training is required after about three weeks to maintain the benefits of overlearning.
101
What is task sequencing?
Task sequencing is the organization and arrangement of learning tasks into a logical sequence of sub-tasks to improve learning.
The basic idea behind task sequencing is that learning can be improved by dividing the training material into an organized sequence of sub-tasks. The trainee learns each successive sub-task before the total task is performed, and learns to perform each step or task in the proper order or sequence.
102
Who is Robert Gagné
Robert Gagné proposed the idea of task sequencing.
Gagné argued that what is most important for learning when designing a training program is identifying the component tasks or sub-tasks and arranging them into a meaningful, logical, and suitable sequence.
103
What is feedback and knowledge of results?
Feedback and knowledge of results involves providing trainees with feedback and information about their performance on a training task so they know how they are performing.
104
Why is feedback critical for learning?
Feedback is critical for learning for at least five reasons:
1) It lets trainees know whether they are performing the training task effectively,
2) it can help build confidence and strengthen trainees’ self-efficacy,
3) it can be reinforcing and stimulate continued efforts and learning,
4) it is necessary for trainees to know whether they have attained their goals and whether they need to revise them or set new ones, and clear, detailed,
5) and timely feedback throughout training will maximize learner engagement.
105
What is corrective feedback?
During training, corrective feedback can be provided when trainees’ performance is below the standard to guide them to learn and improve new behaviors. This feedback should be designed to correct behavior and performance.
106
What factors make feedback most effective?
To be most effective, feedback should be accurate, specific, credible, timely, and positive.
107
What is the importance of timing in giving feedback?
It is important to provide feedback immediately after the behavior or performance is observed to make it more effective.
108
Why is it important to be specific in giving feedback?
Feedback works best when it is specific. Being specific helps the trainee to understand exactly what needs to be corrected or improved.
109
What should trainers do after discussing what was incorrectly done?
After discussing what was incorrectly done, trainers should provide guidance and demonstrate the correct performance to help the trainee understand how to improve.
110
Why is it important to reinforce correct performance?
Providing positive feedback and reinforcement following correct performance helps to encourage the trainee and reinforce the correct behavior.
111
What is routine expertise and when is it not effective??
Routine expertise is the ability to reproduce specific behaviors in similar settings and situations, which is the traditional approach to training.
Routine expertise is not effective for complex jobs that involve novel, unstructured, ill-defined, or changing task demands and work environments.
112
What is adaptive expertise?
Adaptive expertise is the ability to use knowledge and skills across a range of tasks, settings, and situations, which is necessary for complex jobs.
113
What is active learning?
Active learning is an approach to training that gives trainees control over their learning so that they become active participants in their own learning experience.
. For example, the learner has responsibility for choosing learning activities and monitoring and judging progress.
Active learning promotes an inductive learning process in which the learner is provided with unstructured opportunities to discover rules, principles, and strategies for performing a task on their own through exploration and experimentation.
114
What is the difference between inductive and deductive learning?
Active learning promotes an inductive learning process in which the learner is provided with unstructured opportunities to discover rules, principles, and strategies for performing a task on their own through exploration and experimentation.
Traditional approaches to learning are deductive because they transmit knowledge to the learner and provide more guidance and structure on how and what to learn.
115
What are some design elements of a training program for active learning?
Some design elements of a training program for active learning include exploratory or discovery learning, error framing, and emotion control.
116
What is exploratory or discovery learning?
Exploratory or discovery learning provides trainees with the opportunity to explore and experiment with training tasks to infer and learn the rules, principles, and strategies for effective task performance.
117
What is error framing?
Error framing involves encouraging trainees to make errors and to view errors as instrumental for learning. Trainees are encouraged to make and learn from errors during practice.
118
Why is emotion control important in active learning?
Emotion control is important in active learning because it helps trainees control their emotions during training, which can provoke stress and anxiety that can hinder learning and performance.
119
What are metacognitive strategies and why are they important in active learning?
Metacognitive strategies are ways in which trainees self-regulate their learning. Research has found that active learning stimulates metacognitive activities to a greater extent than proceduralized instruction and helps to explain the effects of active learning strategies on adaptive learning and performance.
120
What is error-management training (EMT)?
EMT is a method of training that encourages trainees to make errors during training and to learn from them.
121
What are the benefits of incorporating errors into training?
Errors are a source of negative feedback that can have a positive and informative function in training. Negative feedback is a necessary prerequisite for learning.
122
What are the characteristics of EMT?
EMT involves providing trainees with only basic information and instructing them to explore and solve various problems on their own (active exploration). Trainees are also encouraged to expect errors and frame them positively through error-management instructions.
123
Why is active exploration encouraged in EMT?
Active exploration is encouraged in EMT because it provides trainees with little guidance, making it more likely that they will make errors and learn from them.
124
What are error-management instructions?
Error-management instructions are instructions that encourage trainees to expect errors and frame them positively. This helps reduce the negative effects of errors and enables trainees to be open to learning from error feedback.
125
What are the benefits of error training?
Error training can improve learning and performance in several ways, such as:
- informing trainees of knowledge and skills that need improvement,
- forcing trainees to develop thoughtful strategies and deeper processing of information,
- leading to greater practice, and
- helping trainees learn "error-recovery strategies" that can improve their performance.
126
Is EMT more effective than error-avoidant training?
Several studies have found that EMT is more effective than error-avoidant training for learning and performance, although some studies have found it to be less effective in some cases.
However, Nina Keith and Michael Frese found that EMT is especially effective in certain circumstances.
127
When is EMT most effective?
EMT is most effective for post-training performance, not performance during training.
It is also more effective for tasks that require adaptive expertise or adaptive tasks that differ from those worked on during training and require different solutions.
Finally, EMT is most effective when it is accompanied by error-management instructions, which are beneficial with or without error-management training.
128
What are error-management instructions?
Error-management instructions involve telling trainees that errors are a necessary and natural part of learning, and that they should make errors and learn from them. This helps reduce the negative effects of errors and enables trainees to be open to learning from error feedback. Error-management instructions can be beneficial with or without error-management training, and can improve the performance of older trainees as well as younger trainees with lower cognitive ability when the training is highly structured and error avoidant.
129
What is the model of training effectiveness?
The model of training effectiveness shows that trainees’
- cognitive ability,
- training motivation,
- self-efficacy,
- goal orientation,
- personality, and
- attitudes
Influence trainee learning and retention; learning and retention lead to individual behavior and performance; and individual behavior and performance influence organizational effectiveness.
130
What factors influence learning and retention in the model of training effectiveness?
In addition to trainee characteristics, training design factors such as training methods, active practice, and practice conditions before and during training also influence learning and retention.
131
What design elements are necessary to develop adaptive expertise?
Design elements that promote active learning, such as:
- exploratory/discovery learning,
- emotion control, and
- Error-Management Training (EMT),
are necessary to develop adaptive expertise.
132
4.1: Revised Model of Training effectiveness
The revised model of training effectiveness shows that training and development, trainee characteristics, and training design all influence learning and retention, which in turn lead to individual behavior and performance that influence organizational effectiveness.
