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BIO 232 Anatomy OIT > Lecture Quiz 5 > Flashcards

Lecture Quiz 5 Flashcards

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1
Q

What percentage of sensory receptors are in the eye?

A

70%

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2
Q

What protects the eye?

A

a cushion of fat

the bony orbit

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3
Q

What are the accessory structures to the eye?

A 
eyebrows
eyelids
conjunctiva
lacrimal apparatus
extrinsic eye muscles
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4
Q

Give a general overview of the structure of the eyeball

A

slightly irregular hollow sphere with anterior and posterior poles
wall is composed of three tunics - fibrous, vascular, and sensory
internal cavity is filled with fluids called humors
lens separates the internal cavity into anterior and posterior segments

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5
Q

What is the fibrous tunic composed of?

A

outermost coat of the eye

composed or opaque sclera (posterior) and clear cornea (anterior)

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6
Q

What is the purpose of the sclera?

A

protects the eye and anchors extrinsic muscles

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7
Q

What is the purpose of the cornea?

A

lets light enter the eye

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8
Q

What are the three regions of the vascular tunic?

A

choroid
ciliary body
iris

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9
Q

What does the choroid region do?

A

a dark brown membrane that forms the posterior portion of the uvea
supplies blood to all eye tunics

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10
Q

What does the ciliary body do?

A

thickened ring of tissue surrounding the lens
composed of smooth muscle bundles (ciliary muscles)
anchors the suspensory ligament that holds the lens in place

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11
Q

What is the iris consisted of?

A

the colored part of the eye

the pupil

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12
Q

What does the pupil do?

A

regulates the amount of light entering the eye

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13
Q

When do the pupils constrict? Dilate?

A

Constrict for close vision and bright light, or when subject matter is appealing or requires problem-solving skills
Dilate for distant vision and dim light

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14
Q

What does the retina consist of?

A

delicate two-layered membrane
pigmented layer is the outer layer
neural layer inner layer

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15
Q

What does the pigmented layer of the retina do?

A

absorbs light and prevents its scattering

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16
Q

What does the neural layer of the retina contain?

A

photoreceptors - transduce light energy
bipolar cells and ganglion cells
amacrine and horizontal cells

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17
Q

Where are the ganglionic cell axons in the eyeball?

A

run along the inner surface of the retina

leave the eye as the optic nerve

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18
Q

What is the optic disc?

A 
the site where the optic nerve leaves the eye
lacks photoreceptors (blind spot)
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19
Q

What do rods do in the eyeball?

A

respond to dim light

are used for peripheral vision

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20
Q

What do the cones do in the eyeball?

A

respond to bright light

have high-acuity color vision

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21
Q

Where are cones found in the eyeball?

A

macula lutea

concentrated in the fovea centralis

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22
Q

How is the eye separated into chambers?

A

the lens separated the internal eye into anterior and posterior segments

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23
Q

What does the vitreous humor of the posterior segment do?

A

transmits light
supports the posterior surface of the lens
holds the neural retina firmly against the pigmented layer
contributes to intraocular pressur

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24
Q

How is the anterior segment divided?

A

anterior chamber between the cornea and the iris

posterior chamber between the iris and the lens

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25
Q

What is the anterior segment filled with?

A

aqueous humor

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26
Q

What does the aqueous humor of the anterior segment come from?

A

filters from the capillaries of the cilliary processes

drains via the canal of Schlemm into the scleral venous sinus

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27
Q

What does the aqueous humor of the anterior segment do?

A

supports, nourishes, and removes wastes

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28
Q

Describe the lens of the eye

A 
bioconvex
transparent
flexible
avascular
composed of epithelium and lens fibers
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29
Q

What does the lens of the eye do?

A

allows precise focusing of the light onto the retina

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30
Q

Describe the lens epithelium

A

anterior cuboidal cells that differentiate into lens fibers

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31
Q

Describe lens fibers

A

cells filled with the transparent protein crystallin

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32
Q

What happens to the lens with age?

A

lens becomes more compact and dense

loses its elasticity

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33
Q

What is electromagnetic radiation?

A

all energy waves from short gamma rays to long radio waves

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34
Q

What do our eyes respond to in regards to electromagnetic radiation?

A

a small portion of the spectrum
visible spectrum
different cones in the retina respond to different wavelengths of the visible spectrum

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35
Q

What happens when a light passes from one transparent medium to another?

A

its speed changes and it refracts

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36
Q

What happens when light passes through a convex lens?

A

it is bent so that the rays converge to a focal point

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37
Q

What happens when a convex lens forms an image?

A

the image is upside down and it is reversed right to left

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38
Q

What is an emmetropic eye?

A

normal eye with light focused properly

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39
Q

What is a myopic eye?

A

nearsighted
the focal point is in front of the retina
eyeball is usually too long

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40
Q

How do you correct a myopic eye?

A

concave lens

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41
Q

What is a hyperopic eye?

A

farsighted
the focal point is behind the retina
eyeball too short

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42
Q

How do you correct a hyperopic eye?

A

convex lens

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43
Q

What is the pathway of light entering the eye?

A 
cornea
aqueous humor
lens
vitreaous humor
neural layer of the retina to the photoreceptors
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44
Q

Where is light refracted in the eye?

A

at the cornea
entering the lens
leaving the lens

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45
Q

What does lens curvature and shape allow for?

A

fine focusing on an image

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46
Q

How does the eye adjust for focusing for distant vision

A

sympathetic system

light from a distance needs little adjustment for proper focusing

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47
Q

What is the far point of vision?

A

the distance beyond which the lens does not need to change shape to focus (~20 ft)

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48
Q

What does close vision require (3)?

A

accommodation
constriction
convergence

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49
Q

How is accommodation achieved in the eye?

A

changing the lens shape by ciliary muscles to increase refractory power

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50
Q

How is constriction achieved in the eye?

A

the pupillary reflex constricts the pupils to prevent divergent light rays from entering the eye

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51
Q

How is convergence achieved in the eye?

A

medial rotation of the eyeballs toward the object being viewed

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52
Q

What is photoreception?

A

process by which the eye detects light energy

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53
Q

What do rods and cones both contain?

A

visual pigments

aka photopigments

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54
Q

How do rods and cones perceive light?

A

rods are sensitive to dim light and best suited for night vision, and absorb all wavelengths of visible light
cones need bright light for activation and have low sensitivity

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55
Q

How do rods and cones perceive colors?

A

rods perceive input in gray tones only

cones have pigments that furnish a vividly colored view

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56
Q

How do rods and cones communication with the CNS?

A

sum of visual input from many rods feeds into a single ganglion cell
each cone synapses with a single ganglion cell

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57
Q

What are the results from rod perception vs cone perception?

A

rods result in fuzzy and indistinct images

cones provide vision that is detailed and has high resolution

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58
Q

What is retinal and what does it do?

A

light absorbing molecule
combines with opsins to form visual pigments
similar to and is synthesized from Vitamin A

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59
Q

What are the two isomers of retinal?

A

11-cis retinal - formed from vitamin A

all-trans retinal

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60
Q

What does isomerization of retinal do?

A

initiates electrical impulses in the optic nerve

phototransduction

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61
Q

What is the visual pigment of rods?

A

rhodopsin

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62
Q

What happens to rods during the light phase?

A

rhodopsin breaks down into all-trans retinal + opsin (bleaching of the pigment)

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63
Q

What happens to rods during the dark phase?

A

all-trans retinal converts to 11-cis form

11-cis retinal + opsin regenerate rhodopsin

64
Q

What happens during excitation of cones?

A

visual pigments and method of excitation is similar to rods

65
Q

How do cones perceive color?

A

three types of cones - blue, green, and red

intermediate colors are perceived by activation of more than one type of cone

66
Q

What does adaptation to bright light involve?

A

dramatic decreases in retinal sensitivity - rod function is lost
switching from the rod to cone system - visual acuity is gained

67
Q

What does adaptation to dark involve?

A

cones stop functioning in low light

rhodopsin accumulates in the dark and retinal sensitivity is restored

68
Q

What forms the optic nerve?

A

axons of retinal ganglion cells

69
Q

Where does decussation occur in impulses from the retina?

A

medial fibers of the optic nerve decussate at the optic chiasma

70
Q

Where do most fibers of the optic tract travel to?

A

the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus, where they then travel to the visual cortex

71
Q

Where are alternative places optic fibers end?

A 
midbrain and then superior colliculi (initiating visual reflexes)
pretectal nuclei (involved with pupillary reflexes)
72
Q

What does melanopsin do and where is it found?

A

found in a small subset of visual fibers
mediates pupillary light reflexes
sets daily biorhythms

73
Q

How is depth perception achieved?

A

achieved by both eyes viewing the same image from slightly different angles
three-dimensional vision results from cortical fusion of the slightly different images

74
Q

What happens to depth perception if only one eye is used?

A

depth perception is lost

the observer must rely on learned clues to determine depth

75
Q

What are the two chemical senses?

A

gustation - taste

olfaction - smell

76
Q

What must be true for our chemoreceptors to respond in our chemical senses?

A

chemicals must be dissolved in solution
taste - saliva
smell - fluids of the nasal membranes

77
Q

What is the organ of smell?

A

the olfactory epithelium, which covers the superior nasal concha

78
Q

Describe olfactory receptors

A

bipolar neurons with radiating olfactory cilia

surrounded and cushioned by supporting cells

79
Q

What do you find at the base of olfactory epithelium and why?

A

stem cells

typical life span of olfactory cells is 30-60 days and they need to be replaced ofted

80
Q

Where are the cell bodies of olfactory nerves?

A

olfactory epithelium in nasal mucosa

81
Q

What happens when olfactory receptors react to odor-causing chemicals?

A

when bound to a ligand, these proteins initiate G protein mechanism, which uses cAMP as a second messenger
cAMP activates Na+ and Ca+ channels, causing depolarization of the receptor membrane that then triggers an action potential

82
Q

What is the neural pathway of olfactory cells?

A

olfactory receptor cells synapse with mitral cells
glomerular mitral cells process odor signals
mitral cells send impulses to the olfactory cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, and limbic system
this is the only pathway that does not go through the thalamus

83
Q

How many taste buds are in the tongue and where are they found?

A

10,000

found in the papillae of the tongue mucosa

84
Q

Describe the papillae of the tongue

A

come in three forms based on shape - filiform, fungiform, and circumvallate
filiform is the only type that does not contain taste buds

85
Q

Describe the structure of a taste bud

A

gourd shaped taste bud that consists of two major cell types:
basal cells - dynamic stem cells
gustatory cells - taste cells that are replaced every 7-10 days

86
Q

What causes a sweet sensation?

A

sugars
saccharin
alcohol
some amino acids

87
Q

What causes a salty sensation?

A

metal ions

88
Q

What causes a sour sensation?

A

hydrogen ions

89
Q

What causes a bitter sensation?

A

alkaloids such as quinine, morphine, nicotine

90
Q

What causes an umami sensation?

A

glutamate and aspartate

91
Q

What needs to happen in order for a chemical to be tasted?

A

it must be dissolved in saliva

it must contact gustatory hairs

92
Q

What does binding of the food chemical do?

A

depolarizes the taste cell membrane, releasing neurotransmitter
initiates a general potential that elicits an action potential

93
Q

How is the stimulus energy of taste converted into a nerve impulse?

A

Na+ influx in salty tastes
H+ in sour tastes by directly entering the cell, opening cation channels, or blocking K+ channels
gustducin in sweet, bitter, and umami tastes - G protein receptor mechanism

94
Q

What cranial nerves are involved in taste?

A

VII and IX carry impulses from taste buds to the solitary nucleus of the medulla

95
Q

What is the gustatory pathway of the brain?

A

these impulses travel to the thalamus, then branch to the gustatory cortex, hypothalamus, and limbic system

96
Q

What are the other influencers in taste?

A

taste is 80% smell
thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, and nociceptors also influence taste
temperature and texture

97
Q

What parts of the ear are involved with only hearing?

A

outer and middle ear

98
Q

What does the inner ear do?

A

functions in both hearing and equilibrium

99
Q

What so receptors for hearing and balance do?

A

respond to separate stimuli

100
Q

Describe the auricle

A

It is composed of the helix (rim) and lobule (earlobe)

101
Q

Describe the tympanic membrane

A

thin connective tissue membrane that vibrates in response to sound
transfers sound energy to the middle ear ossicles
boundary between outer and middle ear

102
Q

What is the middle ear?

A

small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity
flanked laterally by the eardrum
flanked medially by the oval and round windows

103
Q

What is the pharyngotympanic tube and what does it do?

A

connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx

equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the external air pressure

104
Q

What are the three small bones of the tympanic cavity and what do they do?

A

malleus, incus, and stapes
transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval window
dampened by the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles

105
Q

Describe the bony labyrinth of the inner ear

A

tortuous channels worming their way through the temporal bone
contains the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals
filled with perilymph

106
Q

Describe the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear

A

series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinth

filled with a potassium-rich fluid

107
Q

Describe the vestibule

A

central egg-shaped cavity of the bony labyrinth

suspending in it perilymph are two sacs - the saccule and utricle

108
Q

Where does the saccule extend into?

A

the cochlea

109
Q

Where does the utricle extend into?

A

semicircular canals

110
Q

What do the sacs of the vestibule do?

A

house equilibrium receptors called maculae

respond to gravity changes in the position of the head

111
Q

What are the semicircular canals?

A

three canals that each define two-thirds of a circle and lie in the three planes of space

112
Q

What do the semicircular canals do?

A

membranous semicircular ducts line each canal and communicate with the utricle

113
Q

What is the ampulla?

A

the swollen end of each canal and it houses equilibrium receptors called the crista ampullaris
these receptors respond to angular movements of the head

114
Q

Describe the shape of the cochlea

A

a spiral, conical, bony chamber that
extends from the anterior vestibule
coils around a bony pillar called the modiolus
contains the cochlear duct which ends at the cochlear apex
contains the organ of Corti (hearing receptor)

115
Q

What are the three chambers of the cochlea?

A

scala vestibuli
scala media
scala tympani

116
Q

Where does scala tympani terminate?

A

the round window

117
Q

What are the scalas tympani and vesitbuli filled wtih?

A

perilymph

118
Q

What is scala media filled with?

A

endolymph

119
Q

What is the “floor” of the cochlear duct composed of?

A

bony spiral lamina

basilar membrane, which supports the organ of Corti

120
Q

What nerve is found in the cochlea?

A

cochlear branch of nerve VIII runs from the organ of Corti to the brain

121
Q

Describe how sound mechanics work in the ear

A

sound vibrations beat against the eardrum
eardrum pushes against the ossicles
presses fluid in the inner ear against the oval and round windows
shearing forces pull on hair cells
moving hair cells stimulate the cochlear nerve that sends impulses to the brain

122
Q

What is sound?

A

a pressure disturbance originating from a vibrating object
composed of areas of rarefaction and compression
represented by a sine wave in wavelength, frequency, and amplitude

123
Q

What is frequency?

A

the number of waves that pass a given point at a given time

124
Q

What is pitch?

A

perception of different frequencies

we hear 20-20,000 Hz

125
Q

What is amplitude?

A

intensity of a sound measured in decibels (dB)

126
Q

What is loudness?

A

subjective to interpretation of sound intensity

127
Q

What is the pathway of sound to the inner ear?

A

outer ear - pinna, auditory canal, eardrum
middle ear - malleus, incus, stapes, oval window
inner ear - scalas vestibuli and tympani to the cochlear duct

128
Q

How do sound waves of low frequency resonate on the basilar membrane?

A

travel across the helicotrema
do not excite the hair cells
inaudible

129
Q

How do audible sound waves resonate on the basilar membrane?

A

penetrate through the cochlear duct
vibrate the basilar membrane
excite specific hair cells according to the frequency of the sound

130
Q

What is the organ of Corti?

A

composed of supporting cells and outer and inner hair cells

afferent fibers of the cochlear nerve attach to the base of hair cells

131
Q

What are the stereocilia?

A

hairs of organ of corti
protrude into the endolymph
touch the tectorial membrane

132
Q

What happens when you bend stereocilia?

A

opens mechanically gated ion channels

causes a graded potential and the release of a neurotransmitter

133
Q

What does the neurotransmitter do in the organ of Corti?

A

causes cochlear fibers to transmit impulses to the brain where sound is perceived

134
Q

What is the auditory pathway to the brain?

A

impulses from the cochlea pass via the spiral ganglion to the cochlear nuclei
impulses are sent to the superior olivary nucleus and inferior colliculus
impulses pass to tthe auditory cortex
auditory pathways decussate so that both cortices receive input from both ears

135
Q

How is pitch perceived?

A

primary auditory cortex

cochlear nuclei

136
Q

How is loudness perceived?

A

varying thresholds of cochlear cells

number of cells stimulated

137
Q

How is localization perceived?

A

superior olivary nuclei that determine sound

138
Q

What is conduction deafness?

A

something hampers sound conduction to the fluids of the inner ear

139
Q

What is sensorineural deafness?

A

results from damage to the neural structures at any point from the cochlear hair cells to the auditory cortical cells

140
Q

What is tinnitus?

A

ringing or clicking sound in the ears in the absence of auditory stimuli

141
Q

What is meniere’s syndrome?

A

labyrinth disorder that affects the cochlea and the semicircular canals, causing vertigo, nausea, and vomiting

142
Q

What is the vestibular apparatus?

A

equilibrium receptors in the semicircular canals and vestibule

143
Q

What does the vestibular apparatus do?

A

maintains our orientation and balance in space

144
Q

What monitors static equilibrium?

A

vestibular receptors

145
Q

What monitors dynamic equilibrium?

A

semicircular canal receptors

146
Q

What are maculae?

A

sensory receptors for static equilibrium
contain supporting cells and hair cells
each hair cell has stereocilia and kinocilium embedded in the otolithic membrane

147
Q

What is the otolithic membrane?

A

jelly-like mass studded with tiny CaCO3 stones called otoliths

148
Q

What do utricular hairs do?

A

respond to horizontal movement

149
Q

What do saccular hairs do?

A

respond to vertical movement

150
Q

What happens when otolithic movement is in the direction of the kinocilia?

A

depolarizes vestibular nerve fibers

increases the number of action potentials generated

151
Q

What happens if movement is away from kinocilia?

A

hyperpolarizes vesttibular nerve fibers
reduces the rate of impulse propagation
brain is told head is changing position

152
Q

What is the crista ampullaris?

A

receptor for dynamic equilibrium
located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal
responds to angular movements

153
Q

Describe the support cells of each crista

A

support cells and hair cells extend into a gel-like mass called the cupula
dendrites of vesttibular nerve fibers encircle the base of the hair cells

154
Q

What happens when there is directional hair cell bending in the cristae?

A

depolarizations and rapid impulses reach the brain at a faster rate
hyperpolarizations and fewer impulses reach the brain
brain is informed of rotational movements of head

155
Q

What are the three modes of input for balance and orientation?

A

vestibular receptors
visual receptors
somatic receptors

BIO 232 Anatomy OIT (10 decks)

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