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lecture notes 4-6 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the four tissue types

A

epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous

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2
Q

what are tissues

A

collection of specialized ells and extracellular substance

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3
Q

what is tissue classification based on

A 
structure of cells
composition of extracellular matrix
function of cells.
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4
Q

what are the four primary tissue types

A

epithelial
connective
muslce
nervous

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5
Q

what is histology

A

microscopic study of tissues

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6
Q

what is a biopsy

A

used for diagnostic purposes

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7
Q

what is an autopsy

A

examination of organs to determine cause of death or to study the changes caused by disease.

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8
Q

what is characteristics of epithelium tissue

A

almost entirely cells
covers body surfaces and forms glands (outside-skin ; lining inside-digestive tract)
most have a free, lateral and basal surface
basement membrane
avascular
capable of regeneration.

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9
Q

what is basement membrane

A

an extracellular material formed by secretions from epithelial and connective tissue called glue.

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10
Q

what is three puposes of basement membrane.

A

helps attach epithelial cells to underlying tissues
guides cell migration fro tissue repair
filter-nephron of kidney.

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11
Q

what determines function of epithelial tissues

A

layers and shapes

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12
Q

what is function of epithelial tissues

A

barrier, diffusion, filtration, secretion, absorption, protection.

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13
Q

what are the three components a free surface of epithelial cel can have

A

smooth
microvilli
cilia

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14
Q

what is purpose of microvilli

A

increase surface

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15
Q

what is purpose of cilia

A

move materials across cell surface.

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16
Q

what are the three classifiecations of epithelium cells based on layers of cells

A

simple
stratified
pseudostratified

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17
Q

what is pseudostratified

A

appears to be stratified, but all cells are attached to basement membrane.

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18
Q

what are three types of cells based on shape of cells

A

squamous
cuboidal
columnar

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19
Q

where are simple squamous epithelium cells found

A

lining of blood vessels and the heart. myphatic vessesl, alveoli of the lungs.

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20
Q

what is purpose of simple squamous epithelium cells

A

diffusion, filtration, some secretion, some protection.

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21
Q

where is simple cuboidal epithelium cells found

A

some with microvilli in kidney tubules and some line terminal bronchioles of the lungs

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22
Q

what is purpose of simple cuboidal epithelium cells

A

secretion, absorption.

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23
Q

where is simple columnar epithelium found

A

GI tract, microvilli, lungs, cilia.

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24
Q

What is purpose of simple columnar epithelium

A

secretion and absorption in small intestines, particles out

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25
Q

what is two types of stratified squamous epithelium cells

A

keratinized

nonkeratinized.

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26
Q

where is nonkeratinized cells found

A

mouth, throat, esophagus.

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27
Q

what does nonkeratinized cells consist of

A

consists of living cells in the deepest and outermost layers

layer of fluid covers the outermost cells which makes them moist.

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28
Q

where is keratinized cells found

A

skin

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29
Q

what do nonkeratinized cells consist of

A

living cells in deepest layer, and teh outer layers are composed of deead cells containing the protein keratin.

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30
Q

what is the purpose of stratified squamous epithelium cells

A

protection from abrasion, chemicals, water loss, infection.

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31
Q

where is stratified cuboidal epithelium found

A

sweat gland ducts

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32
Q

what is purpose of stratified cuboidal epithelium

A

secretion, absorption, protection agaisnt infection.

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33
Q

where is stratified columnar epithelium found

A

mammary gland duct, larynx, portion of male urethra.

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34
Q

what is purpose of stratified columnar epithelium

A

secretion, protection.

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35
Q

where is pseudostratified columnar epithelium

A

nasal sinuses, bronchi of lungs, trachea.

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36
Q

what is purpose of pseudostratified columnar epithelium

A

secrete mucis, move mucus.

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37
Q

where is transitional epithelium found

A

lining urinary bladder, ureters

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38
Q

what is purpose of transitional epithelium

A

stretch with volume changes of organ- protects agaisnt caustic effects or urine.

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39
Q

what is the functions of cell connections

A

bind cells together
hold cells together and form a permeable layer
intercellular communication

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40
Q

whats desmosomes

A

bind cells together

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41
Q

what are tight junctions

A

hold cells together and forms a permeable layer

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42
Q

what aer the types of glands

A

endocrine

exocrine

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43
Q

what is endocrine

A

no ducts. hormones to blood stream

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44
Q

what is exocrine

A

ducts

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45
Q

what are the two ways glands are classiied

A

type and structure.

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46
Q

what are the two ways of classifying glands according to structure

A

unicellular- goblet cells

multicellular- classified by the structure of the ducts or by their method of secretion.

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47
Q

what are four types of glands according to structure

A

simple- ducts with few branches
compound- ducts with many branches
tubular- secretory regions shaped like tubes
acinar- saclike structures

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48
Q

what are types of glands according to secretion

A

merocrine
apocrine
holocrine

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49
Q

what are merocrine

A

secretion with no loss of cellular material

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50
Q

what is apocrine

A

fragments in secretion-cell oinches off

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51
Q

what is holocrine

A

whole cells is part of secretion

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52
Q

what is function of connective tissue

A 
enclose organs
connect tissues- tendons
suport and movement- bones, rigid support
storage- fat
cushion- fat
transport- blood
protect
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53
Q

what are blasts

A

create matrix

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54
Q

what are cytes

A

maintain matrix

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55
Q

what are clasts

A

breakdown fro remodeling

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56
Q

what are mast cells

A

reelease in response to injury, trauma, infection.

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57
Q

what are the two types of macrophages

A

fixed wandering

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58
Q

what are 3 major components of extracellular matrix

A

protein fibers
ground substance
fluid.

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59
Q

what are the three types of proteins fibers in the extracellular matrix

A

collagen
reticular
elastic

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60
Q

what is reticular

A

fine collagen fivers. forms branching network. fill spaces between tissues and organs.

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61
Q

what is ground substance

A

shapeless background in microscope

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62
Q

what are the four types of ground substance

A

hyaluronic acid
proteoglycans
adhesive molecules

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63
Q

what is purpose of hyaluronic acid

A

lubricant for joint cavities

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64
Q

what is purpose of proteoglycans

A

traps large amounts water. provides cartilege with its resilient nature.

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65
Q

what is purpose of adhesive molecules

A

holds proteoglycans together.

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66
Q

what makes up extracellular matrix

A

protein fibers
ground substance
fluid

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67
Q

what are 2 types embryonc connective tissue

A

mesenchyme

mucous

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68
Q

what are 6 types adult connective tissue

A 
loose
dense
special properties
cartilege
bone
hemopoietic tissue
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69
Q

what is purpose of loose connective tissue

A

loose packing material of most oragans and tissues

attaches skin to underlying tissues

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70
Q

what is special about dense regular collagenous connective tissue

A

has abundant collagen fibers-resists streching
tendons
ligaments

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71
Q

what tissues make up the layers of the skin

A

epidermis
dermis
hypodermis

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72
Q

what are the two types of adipose tissue

A

yellow- white at birth, yellows with age because of accumulation of pigments
brown- more found in babies. controls body temp.

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73
Q

what is purpose of reticular tissue

A

provides a super structure for lymphatic and hemopoietic tissues
space between reticular cells contain WBC’s and dendritic cells

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74
Q

what are two characteristics of cartilege

A

firmest structure in body except bone

avascular- no blood or nerve supply

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75
Q

what is perichondrchondrium

A

dense irregular connective tissue that surronds nearly all cartilege. secretes cartilege cells.

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76
Q

what are chondrocytes

A

cartilege cells surronded by matrix and located in spaces called lucunae.

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77
Q

where is hyaline cartilege found

A

ribcage, trachea, brincki. embryo skeleton.

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78
Q

what is hyaline cartilege involved in

A

growth in lenght of bones

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79
Q

what is structure of hyaline cartilege

A

collagen fibers and proteoglycans in matrix

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80
Q

what is structure of fibrocartilege

A

thick collagen fibers in matrix. slightly compressible and tough

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81
Q

where is fibrocartilege found

A

areas of pressure on joints. knee. invertabral disk

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82
Q

what is structure of elastic cartilege

A

elastic and collagen fibers and proteoglycans in matrix.

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83
Q

where is elastic cartilege found

A

external ears

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84
Q

what are components of bone

A

hard connective tisssue
matrix- strenght and rigidity
osteocytes located in lacunae

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85
Q

what are the types of bone

A

cancellous or spongy

compact bone

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86
Q

what is cancelllous bone

A

trabeculae of bone with spaces. looks like a sponge. found inside of bone.

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87
Q

where is cancelous bone found

A

skull, vertebrea, strnum, ends of long bones.

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88
Q

what is compact bone

A

concentric layers around a central canal

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89
Q

what elemetns does blood form

A

red cells, white cells, platelets.

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90
Q

what forms hemopoietic tissue

A

blood cells

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91
Q

where is hemopoietic tissue found

A

red bone marrow

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92
Q

what are two types of bone marrow

A

red- red and white cells

yellow-adipose tissue

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93
Q

what is marfan syndrome

A

genetic condition, affects individuals by targeting the elastic fibers of connective tissue. this causes the connective tissue to be weakened and unable to work.

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94
Q

what are characteristics of muscle tissue

A

contracts or shortens with force

moves the body;pumps blood

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95
Q

what are types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal- attached to skeleton
cardiac-straited and involuntary
smooth-muslce of tubular structures and skin. regulates size of organs. nonstraited and involuntary

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96
Q

what do neurons or nerve cells do

A

produce actin potentials

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97
Q

what are the parts of nervous tissue

A

cell body
axon
dendrite

98
Q

what does axon do

A

process conducts impulses away, from cell body

99
Q

What does dendrite do

A

cell process receive impulses from other neurons.

100
Q

what are types of nervous tissue

A

multipolar, bipolar, pseudounipolar.

101
Q

whats purpose of neuroglia

A

support cells of brain, spinal cord and nerves

nourish, protect, and insulate neurons.

102
Q

what does mucous membrane do

A

line cavities that open to outside

secrete mucus

103
Q

What is purpose of serous membrane

A

lines cavities not open to outside. release serous fluid that protects internal organs from friction.

104
Q

what is purpose of synovial membrane

A

lines movable joints

produces synovial fluid which is rich in hyaluronic acid.

105
Q

what are te three types of membranes

A

mucous
serous
synovial

106
Q

what is imflammatory response

A

occurs when tissue is damaged or i associated with an immune response.

107
Q

what are chemical mediatos of inflammation

A

histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes

vasodilation, stimulation of pain receptors, increased blood vessels permeability.

108
Q

what are the manifestations of inflammatory response

A

redness, heat, swelling, pain, disturbance of function.

109
Q

what is steps of skin repair

A

primary union
scab
granulation tissue
scar made of dermis.

110
Q

what is secondary union

A

edges not closed. inflammation resonse greater. wound contraction occurs and greater scarring.

111
Q

what is neoplasm

A

growth

112
Q

what is malignant

A

spreads and causes harm

113
Q

what is benign

A

not inclined to spread

114
Q

what is carcinoma

A

a malignant neoplasm from epithelial tissue

115
Q

what is a sarcoma

A

a maligant neoplasm from connective tissue

116
Q

what is not a primary function of the integumentary system

A

absorption

117
Q

what is epidermis

A

superficial layer of epithelial tissue

118
Q

what is dermis

A

deep layer of connective tissue

119
Q

what is hypodermis

A

not part of skin

loose connective tissue

120
Q

what are three characteristics of epidermis

A

avascular
cells arranged into layers
basement membrane seperates from dermis

121
Q

what is purpose of keratinocytes

A

produce keratin for strength

122
Q

what is purpose of melanocytes

A

skin color

123
Q

what is purpose of langerhans cells

A

immune system

124
Q

what is purpose of merkel cells

A

light touch/superficial pressure

125
Q

whats desquamate

A

cells of deeper layers undergo mitosis, move toward surface

126
Q

what is keratinization

A

cells move outward through layers, fill with keratin die.

127
Q

what are the five layers of epidermal strata

A

stratum corneum- cornified cells
stratum lucidum- thin, clear zone- palms and soles only
stratum granulosum- nucleus and other organells degenerate and cell dies
stratum spinosum- limited cell division.desosomes, lamellar bodies and additional keratin fibers
stratum basale- deepest portion of epidermis-high mitotic activity

128
Q

where is thick skin found

A

all 5 epithelial strata
areas subject to pressure or friction
fingerprints/footprints

129
Q

what is callus

A

increase in number of layers in stratum corneum.

130
Q

what gives skin its color

A

pigments
blood circulation
thickness of stratum corneum

131
Q

what is melanin

A

protect against uv light. brown, black, yellowish.

132
Q

what are melanocytes

A

processes extend between keratinocytes

133
Q

what is production of pigments determined by

A

genetics, hormones, exposure to light.

134
Q

what is albinism

A

deficeincy or absence of pigment.

135
Q

what is carotene

A

yellow pigment from vegetables. accumulates in stratum corneum, adipose cells and hypodermis.

136
Q

what affects toe color of your skin

A

pigments
blood circulating through skin
thickness of stratum corneum

137
Q

what does dermis do

A

gives strenght with many fibers, fibroblasts, macrophages.

138
Q

what is contained in dermis

A

nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and lymphatic vessels

139
Q

what are sensory function sof dermis

A

pain, itch, tickle, temperatute, touch, pressure, two point discrimination.

140
Q

what are the two layers of the dermis

A

papillary- areolar with lots of elastic fibers
reticular- dense irregular CT
collagen and elastic fibers

141
Q

what are cleavage lines

A

elastin and collagen fibers oriented in smae direction.

142
Q

whats hypodermis

A

consists of connective tissue. collagen and elastic fibers.

143
Q

What are types of hypodermis

A

fibroblasts
adipose cells
macrophages

144
Q

what is another name for hypodermis

A

subcutaneous

145
Q

what does hypodermis function as

A

energy source
insulation
padding

146
Q

where are parts that hair is not found

A

palms, soles, lips, nipples, parts of external genitalia, distal fingers

147
Q

what are the three layers of hair

A

medulla
cortex
cuticle.

148
Q

what is causes of split ends

A

thermal
chemical
mechanical stress

149
Q

what is two parts of hair follicle

A

dermal root sheath

epithelial root sheath

150
Q

what are two parts of hair bulb

A

matrix

hair papilla

151
Q

what are the two stages of hair growth

A

growth stage- matrix adds cells at base of hair root and hair elongates. 0.3mm/day
rest stage- follicle shortens and holds hair in place.

152
Q

what does regular hair loss mean

A

hair is being replaced

153
Q

what is permanent hair loss

A

pattern baldness

154
Q

what are the two parts of arrector pili

A

types of smooth muscle
muscle contraction- hair stand on end
skin pushed by by movement of hair follicle

155
Q

where is sebaceous oil found

A

holocrine gland

156
Q

what are sudoriferous glands

A

sweat glands

157
Q

what is merocrine

A

simple coiled- open directly onto surface

158
Q

What does merocrine produce

A

isotonic fluid.

159
Q

What is apocrine

A

active at puberty

160
Q

where is merocrine found

A

palms and soles

161
Q

where is apocrine found

A

axillae, genitalia

162
Q

what are ceruminous glands

A

modified merocrine seat glands in external auditory meatus.

163
Q

what are the parts of nails

A

nail body
eponychium
nail root
matrix

164
Q

how much does a fingernail grow per day

A

0.5-1.2mm/day

165
Q

what does skin protect against

A

abrasion
microorganism
melanin

166
Q

what does your hair on your head protect against

A

insulator, light, abrasion.

sweat, dust, insects.

167
Q

what is temperature regulation

A

sweating and radiation of heat.

168
Q

what changes diametere with temperature.

A

arterioles

169
Q

what does vitamin D aid in

A

calcium absorption

170
Q

what does vitamin d do

A

stimulates uptake of Ca++ from intestines.

171
Q

what does calcium help with

A

bone growth and repair. clotting nerve and muscle function.

172
Q

what are sources of calcium

A

dairy, liver, egg yolk, supplements.

173
Q

whats excretion

A

removal of waste products from the body. sweat, water, salt, ammonia.

174
Q

what is a first degree burn

A

epidermis

175
Q

ehat is a second degree burn

A

dermis

176
Q

what is full thickness burn

A

dermis and epidermis are destroyed.

177
Q

what are the results of aging

A 
skin more easily damaged
skin infections
wrinkling occurs
skin drier
decrease blood supply
melanocytes decrease
sunlight ages skin
178
Q

whats actinic keratosis

A

rough, scaly patches on the skin. areas skin exposed.

179
Q

what are two elements of bone matrix

A

calcium and collagen.

180
Q

what is osteogenesis also called

A

brittle bone disorder.

181
Q

what is cause of osteogenesis

A

by too little formation of type 1 collagen in the bone. collagen fibers in the bone allow flexibility and without it present, the bone becomes brittle.

182
Q

what er results of osteogenesis imperfecta

A

fractures, spinal curvatures, loose joints, brittle teeth, hearing loss, blue tint to whites of eyes.

183
Q

what is ossification

A

the formation of bone

184
Q

how do osteoblasts communicate

A

through gap junctions.

185
Q

what does osteocytes mean

A

surronded by matrix

186
Q

what does lacunae do

A

occupies spaces by the osteocyte cell body.

187
Q

what does canaliculi do

A

occupies canals by osteocyte cell processes

188
Q

where do nutrients pass through in bone

A

lacunea, canaliculi, gap junctions

189
Q

What is purpose of osteoclasts

A

absorption. breakdown

190
Q

how is a ruffled border caused

A

formed by contact of the PM of osteoclasts and the bone marrow.

191
Q

what are osteochondral progenitor cells

A

become chondroblasts or osteoblasts.

192
Q

What is osteoporosis a result of

A

loss bone matrix. bone becomes weak and at risk for fratures.

193
Q

what are factors that can cause osteoporosis

A

age, hormones, diet, exercise, and even history of smoking.

194
Q

how are bone tissue classified

A

organization of collagen fibers in the bone matrix.

195
Q

what are the types of bone

A

woven bone
lamellar bone
cancellous bone
compact bone

196
Q

what are characteristics of woven bone

A

collagen fibers randomly oriented
developed during fetal development
developed during fracture repair.
remodeling-removing old bone.

197
Q

what are characteristics of lamellar bone

A

sheets- lamellae. collagen fibers oriented in one direction in each layer.
each layer has a different direction

198
Q

whats trabeculae

A

interconnecting rods or plates of bone. like scaffolding

199
Q

what are characteristics of trabeculae

A

spaces filled with blood vessels and marrow bone
covered with a single layer of cells
oriented along stress lines.

200
Q

what are the four parts of the compact bone

A

central or haversian canals- parallel to long axis
lamellae-concentric
osteon system-central canal lined with endosteum, its contents, concentric lamellae and osteocytes.
perforating or volkmanns canal-perpendicular to long axis

201
Q

what happens at the perforating canals

A

blood vessels from periosteum or medullary enter the bone.
suply blood vessels in the central canal
nutrients and wastes travel between osteocytes.

202
Q

woven bone is remodeling into what type of bone?

A

lamellar or mature bone.

203
Q

what are the four bone shapes

A

long- upper, lower limbs
short- carpals and tarsals
flat- ribs, sternum, skull
irregular- vertebrae, facial

204
Q

what are the 7 parts of the bone

A

diaphysis- shaft
epiphysis- end of bone
epiphyseal plate- growth plate
epiphyseal line- bone stops growing in lenght
medullary cavity- marrow
periosteum- single layer
sharpeys fibers-periosteal fibers penetrate through periosteum into bone.
endosteum-similar inner layer as the periosteum.

205
Q

what are flat bones

A

sandwich of cancellous between compact bone

206
Q

what is short and irregular bone

A

compact bone that surronds cancellous- similar to the structure of epiphyses.

207
Q

what does it mean when you see the epiphyseal line

A

the epiphyseal plate has closed.

208
Q

what are the two methods of ossification

A

intramembranous ossification- found in connective tissue membrane
endochondral ossification- found in cartilege

209
Q

where does intramembranous ossification form?

A

in connective tissue membrane from embryonic mesenchymal cells.

210
Q

were are the centers of ossification

A

CT membrane

211
Q

what are fontanels

A

large membrane covered spaces between developing skull bones.

212
Q

when does cartilege formation form

A

4th week of embryo

213
Q

when does ossification begin

A

8th week of embryo

214
Q

which type of bone development starts with cartilege

A

endochondral

215
Q

where do long bones grow in lenght

A

epiphyseal plate

216
Q

appositional growth

A

new layers of bone on surface of old bone or cartilege.

217
Q

when does closure of the epiphyseal plate happen

A

when epiphyseal plate is ossified

218
Q

what happens with articular cartilege

A

does not ossify-persists through life.

219
Q

what are the zones of the epiphyseal plate

A

resting cartilege- cartilege attaches to the epiphysis
proliferation-new cartilege is produced on the epiphyseal side of the plate as the condrocytes divide and form stacks of cells
hypertrophy- chondrocytes mature and enlarge
calcification- matrix is calcified, and chondrocyres die
ossified bone- calcified cartilege on the diaphyseal side of the plate is replaced by bone.

220
Q

what is a result of growth at the articular cartilege

A

increased size of the epiphyses

221
Q

what are condrocytes near surface of articular cartilege similar to

A

those in zone of resting cartilege.

222
Q

what is pituitary gigantism

A

excess growth hormone before growth plate closes

223
Q

what is acromegaly

A

excess growth hormone after growth plates close.

224
Q

what is achondroplastic dwarf

A

improper growth at the growth plate.

225
Q

what are some factors affecting bone growth

A
  • size/shape determined by nutrition and hormones
  • nutrition- lack of Ca++
    hormones
226
Q

what results from lack of vitamin D

A

rickets- decreased mineralization of bone matrix

osteomalacia- softening of bones.

227
Q

what happens with lack of vitamin C

A

scurvy

wounds not heal, teeth fall out.

228
Q

what are some types of hormones

A

growth hormone
thyroid
sex hormones

229
Q

what is BMU

A

a temporary group of osteoclasts and osteoblasts- remove old bone matrix and replace it with new bone

230
Q

how are osteons formed in compact bone

A

osteoclasts breakdown the matrix and form a tunnel
osteoblasts form lamellae around the tunnel wall forming a concentric lamallae. the process continues until a ostean is formed.

231
Q

what are the four steps of bone repair

A

hemotoma- blood from blood vessels
callus- tissue forms at fracture site
callus ossification- callus replaced by woven, cancellous bone
bone remodeling- replacement of woven/bone by compact bone

232
Q

what happens with internal callus formation

A
  • blood vessels grow into clot
  • macrophages clean up debris
  • fibroblasts produce collagen and granulation tissue
233
Q

what happens with external callus formation

A

osteoblasts and chondroblasts. bone cartilege collar stabilizes two pieces.

234
Q

what early structure helps stabilize a fracture during bone repair

A

callus

235
Q

what cells or tissues do not play a major role in bone repair in the callus formation stage

A

compact bone

236
Q

what are the stages of bone repair in order

A

hematoma, callus formation, callus ossification, bone remodeling

237
Q

what is a major storage site of calcium

A

bone

238
Q

blood calcium evels

A

calcium enters bone via osteoblasts, leaves via osteoclasts.

239
Q

what does parathyroid hormone do

A

raises calcium in the blood by stimulating osteoclasts.

240
Q

what does calcitonin do

A

lowers calcium in the blood by inhibiting osteoclast activity

241
Q

what are the effects of age on the skeletal system

A

bone matrix decreases. more brittle due to lack of collagen.
bone mass decreases.
bone loss times 10 after menapause
increased fractures
bone loss causes deformity, loss of height, stiffness, stopped.

242
Q

what are the types of bone fractures

A

open- bone break + open wound
closed- no break in skin
incomplete- not across bone
greenstick- fracture on the convex side of the curve of a bone
hairline-two section of bone do not seperate
comminuted fractures- more than two pieces.
impacted- one fragment is driven into cancellous portion of other fragment

A+P (8 decks)

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