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A+P > A+P 8-9 > Flashcards

A+P 8-9 Flashcards

1
Q

articulation

A

place where two bones come together.

freely movable, limited, or no apparent movement

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2
Q

What are the three ways articulations are named

A

according to bones, parts united
according to only one of bones
by latin equivalent of common name

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3
Q

how are joints classified

A

fiberous, cartilege, synovial.

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4
Q

what are fiberous joints

A

synarthrosis-
have little or no movement
united by fibrous connective tissue
no joint cavity

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5
Q

what are the types of fiberous joints

A

sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses

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6
Q

what are sutures

A

seams found between bones of the skull

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7
Q

What is the sutural ligament

A

two periostea and connective tissue

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8
Q

what is synostosis

A

fully ossified suture. two bones grow together across a joint to form a single bone

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9
Q

what is syndesmoses

A

slightly movable type of fiberous joint

bones are father apart than in suture joints

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10
Q

joints of mandible and maxillae
specialized
pegs fit into sockets

A

what is gomphoses

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11
Q

peridontal ligaments

A

keep teeth in place- connective tissue bundles between teeth and sockets

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12
Q

cartilegous joints

A

united by hyaline cartilege or fibrocartilege

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13
Q

what are the two types of cartilegoues joints

A

synchondroses

symphyses

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14
Q

what is synchondroses

A

hyaline cartilege
little or no movement
temprary
costochondral joints develop into synovial joints

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15
Q

what is symphyses

A

fibrocartilege

slightly movable

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16
Q

what are the six types of synovial joints

A

plane, saddle, hinge, pivot, ball and socket, ellipsoid.

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17
Q

what is the only change in the symphysis

A

pregnancy- becomes more stretchable
joint can relax some
joint goes back to original condition

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18
Q

what are the characteristics of synovial joints

A

synovial fluid
considerable movement
complex
most joints of the appendicular skeleton.

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19
Q

what is articular cartilege

A

smooth surface- where bones meet

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20
Q

what is the joint cavity

A

encloses articular surfaces

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21
Q

what is joint capsule

A

space around articular surfaces of bones in synovial joint

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22
Q

what is fiberous capsule

A

outer layer of joint capsule

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23
Q

what is synovial membrane

A

membrane lines inside of joint capsule

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24
Q

a prominent area of adipose tisse, lie between fiberous capsule and synovial membrane. cushion around joint.

A

what are fat pads

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25
Q

what are two parts of joint capsule

A

fiberous capsule

synovial membrane

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26
Q

what is bursae

A

pockets of synovial membrane

provides cushion between structures

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27
Q

what is purpose of articular discs

A

improve stability reduce wear on articular cartilege

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28
Q

what are menisci

A

fibrocartilaginous pads

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29
Q

what are tendon sheaths

A

synovial sacs surrond tendons

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30
Q

what is plane joint

A

two flat bonee surfaces of about equal size between which gliding motion occurs
unaxial
intervertebral

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31
Q

what is saddle joint

A

consists of two saddle shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right angle so complementary surfaces articulate
biaxial

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32
Q

what is ahinge joint

A

uniaxial

convex cylinder in one bone, corresponding concavity in the other.

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33
Q

what is pivot joints

A

unaxial. rotation around a single axis
cylindrical bony process rotating within a circle of bone and ligament
dens of axis and atlas, proximal radioulnar.

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34
Q

what is ball joint

A

multiaxial

wide range of movement

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35
Q

what is ellisoid joint

A

modified balla nd socket
articular surfaces are ellipsoid
biaxial
atlantooccipitial

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36
Q

what are the three types of movement3

A

gliding
angular
circular

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37
Q

what is angular movement

A

involve change in angle between bones in joint

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38
Q

what are the two types of angular movement

A

flexion/extension

abduction and adduction

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39
Q

what are the two types of flexion

A

hyperextension

plantar and dorsiflexion

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40
Q

what is hyperextension

A

extension of joint beyond anatomical position

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41
Q

what is plantar

A

walking o heals

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42
Q

what is flexion

A

bending movement that decreases angle of joint to bring articulating bones together

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43
Q

what is extension

A

straightening movement increase angle of joint to straighten articulating bones

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44
Q

what are three types of circular movement

A

rotational
pronation
circumduction

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45
Q

what is abduction

A

take awat from midline

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46
Q

what is adduction

A

bring toward midline

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47
Q

what is a rotation

A

turning of a structure on its long axis

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48
Q

what are two types of rotation

A

medial

lateral

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49
Q

what are the ypes of special movement

A 
elevation and depression
protraction and retraction
excursion
opposition
inversion and eversion
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50
Q

what is elevation

A

moves structure superiorly or inferiorly

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51
Q

what is protraction

A

gliding motion moving structure anterioirly or posteriorly

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52
Q

what are two types of excursion

A

lateral

medial

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53
Q

what is opposition

A

thumb and finger are brought together or apart

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54
Q

what is inversion

A

turns ankles toward midline or return to AP

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55
Q

what is range of motion

A

describes the amount of mobility

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56
Q

what is active and passive motion influenced by

A 
the shape of articular surfaces
strength
location of ligaments and tendons
location of muscles associated with joint
fluid or pain in and around joint
use of joint
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57
Q

what is dislocation

A

occurs when articulating surfaces of bones are moved out of proper alignment

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58
Q

what is subluxation

A

partial dislocation

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59
Q

what is glenoid labrum

A

rim of fibrocartilage around the glenoid cavity.

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60
Q

rotator cuff

A

four muscles add stability to the joint

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61
Q

what are the three parts of the knee joint

A

menisci
cruciate ligaments
collateral ligaments

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62
Q

what is the menisci

A

fibrocartilage articular disks build up in the margins of the tibia and deepen the articular surface
traditionally considered a modified hinge joint but actually a complex ellipsoid joint

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63
Q

what is anterior cruciate ligament

A

prevents anterior displacement of tibia

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64
Q

what is posterior cruciate ligament

A

prevents posterior displacement

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65
Q

what is purpose of collateral ligaments

A

helps strenghen joint

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66
Q

what is a sprain

A

damaged ligaments, inflammation, swelling, pain.

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67
Q

what are the effects of aging on the joints

A 
tissue repair slows
rate of new blood vessels decreases
articular cartilege wears down
matrix becomes more rigid
production of synovial fluid declines
ligaments and tendons become shorter
less flexiable
muslces around joints weaken
decreased activity
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68
Q

what is arthritus

A

inflammation of any joint

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69
Q

what ajre the two kind sof arthritus

A

osteoarthritis

rheumatoid

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70
Q

what is the ankle joint

A

talocrucal- highly modified hinge joint formed by two articulations

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71
Q

what is purpose of the arches of the ankle

A

hold bones in proper relationshiop as segments of arch and provide ties across arch

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72
Q

what is plantar fasciitis

A

inflammation of plantar fascia.

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73
Q

what are the functions of the muscular system

A 
body movement
maintenence of posture
respiration
production of body heat
communication
constriction of organs and vessels
heart beat
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74
Q

what are the properties of muscles

A

contractility
excitability
extensibility
elasticity

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75
Q

contractility

A

muscle shortens with force or contract

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76
Q

excitability

A

respond to a stimulis

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77
Q

extensibility

A

muscle can be stretched beyond its normal resting length and still contract

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78
Q

elasticity

A

recoil to original resting lenght after stretched.

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79
Q

what are the three types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal- voluntary- locamotion, facial expression, posture, respirations
smooth- involuntary
cardiac- involuntary

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80
Q

what are the characteristics of smooth muscle

A

walls- hollow organs, blood vessels, glands skin.
some functions: propel urine, mix food, pupils, regulate blood flow
some is autorhythmic
control- endocrine and autonomic nervous systems.

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81
Q

what are characteristics of cardiac

A

heart
autorhythmic
control- endocrine and autonomic nervous systems.

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82
Q

what are the connective tissue layers

A

sarcolemma- surronds muscle cell
endomysium- also around muscle cell
perimysium- denser CT surronding group of muscle fibers
epimysium- CT that surronds whole muscle

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83
Q

what is fascia

A

connective tissue sheet

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84
Q

what is endomysium

A

delicate layer tissue that seperates individual muscle fibers within fasicle

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85
Q

what is epimysium

A

layer of dense irregular connective tissue, protein fibers gradually merge with muscular fascia.

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86
Q

what is muscular fascia

A

layers of connective tissue between adjacent muscles and between muscles and skin.

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87
Q

what are the characteristics of fascia

A 
forms layer under skin
hold muscles together 
separates them into functional groups
allows free movement or muscles
carries nerves, blood vessels and lymphatic
continuous with tendons and periosteum
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88
Q

what are motor neurons

A

stimulate muscle fibers to contract

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89
Q

what are axon branches

A

each muscle fiber is innervated

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90
Q

what are myofilaments

A

threadlike, protein

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91
Q

what are sarcomeres

A

repeating units of myofilaments

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92
Q

myoblasts

A

fusion of several hundred embryonic cells

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93
Q

tropomyosin

A

long protein covers active binding sites on actin

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94
Q

troponin

A

binds to actin, tropomyosin, and Ca++

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95
Q

tropomyosin

A

regulates the interaction of active sites on actin

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96
Q

what does striated mean

A

alternating light and dark bands of muscle fibers

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97
Q

what are myosin heads

A

binds to active sites on actin- forms cross bridges
hinge region- bends during contraction
breaks down ATP releasing energy.

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98
Q

what are sacromeres

A

highly ordered units, structural and functional units of skelteal muslces

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99
Q

what is hypertrophy

A

enlargement

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100
Q

what happens in a sliding filament model

A

actin and myosin do not change lenght
shortening sacromeres leads to skeletal muscle contraction
relaxation- sacromeres lenghten by antagonistic muscles.

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101
Q

what does the nervous system do

A

controls muscle contractions with action potenetials

102
Q

what is the membrane volatege difference across membranes

A

inside some cells more negative. More K+ on the inside

more Na on the outside. Na/K maintians concentrations of ions.

103
Q

what are the two types of ion channels

A

ligand gated- neurotransmitter attackes to receptor and gate opens, Na moves into cell
voltage gated- voltage changed open gates. gates only for Na+ and gates for only K+

104
Q

what are the two action potentials

A

depolarization- inside plasma membrane becomes less negative

repolarization- return to resting membrane potential

105
Q

what is action potential

A

if charge reaches the membrane potential

106
Q

what is propagate

A

spread from one location to another. action potentials does not move aong the membrane.

107
Q

what is frequency of action potentials

A

number of action potentials per unit of time.

108
Q

what are the muscle contraction factors

A

the amount of force in individual muscle fiber, amount of force in whole muscle.

109
Q

what happens in a single contraction

A

each myosin myofilament undergoes cross bridge formation, movement, release in return.

110
Q

what is synapse

A

axon terminal resting in depression of the arcolemma.

111
Q

what is presynaptic terminal

A

axon terminal with synaptic vesicles

112
Q

what is synaptic cleft

A

space betweeen presynaptic terminal and muscle fiber

113
Q

what is postsynaptic membrane or motor end plate

A

muscle plasma membrane in area of junction

114
Q

what are the sections of the neuromuscular junction

A

presynaptic
synaptic
postsynaptic

115
Q

what happens in synaptic vesicles

A

neurotransmitter released from presynaptic terminal membrane, diffuses across synaptic cleft
it stimulates action potentials in postsynaptic membrane.

116
Q

what is acetylcholinesterase

A

degrading enzyme in synaptic cleft

117
Q

what is excitation

A

mechanism where action potentials causes muscle fiber contraction

118
Q

what does excitation involve

A

sarcolemma
transverse tubules
terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Ca2+
tropomyosin complex reestablishes its position and blockes binding sites on actin.

119
Q

what happens if something blockes the receptor site for acetycholine in the neuromuscular junction

A

myasthenia gravis

120
Q

what are the results of the resting membrane potential

A

K+ concentration higher than outside membrane
Na+ concentration outside is higher than inside
more permeable to K+ than Na+

121
Q

what do sodium potassium pumps maintain

A

uneven distribution of Na+ and K+ across plasma membrane

122
Q

what is power stroke

A

movement of myosin head

123
Q

what is recovery stroke

A

breakdown of ATP by myosin head supplies energy

124
Q

what does depolarization in one action potential trigger

A

opening of nearby voltage gated Na+ single action potential

125
Q

what is action potential frequency

A

number of action potentials produced in certian amount of time. can affect strenght of muslce contraction.

126
Q

what is amuscle twitch

A

muscle contraction from stimulus that casues action potential in one or more muscle fibers.

127
Q

what are the phases of muscle twitch

A

lag
contraction
relaxation

128
Q

what is the lag phase in muscle twitch

A

gap between time of simulation to motor neuron and beginning of contraction.

129
Q

what are motor units

A

a single motor neuron and all muscle fibers innervated by it.

130
Q

what does size of motor units depend on

A

number of muscle fibers in unit.

131
Q

what is all or noen principle

A

contraction of equal force to each action potential

132
Q

what is muscle tetany

A

the frequency potentials increase, the frequency of contraction increases.

133
Q

muscle fibers partially relax between contractions

A

what is imcomplete tetanus

134
Q

what is complete tetanus

A

no relaxation between contractions

135
Q

what are the types of muscle contraction

A

isometric
isotonic
muslce tone

136
Q

what is isometric

A

no change in length but tension increases

137
Q

what is isotonic

A

change in lenght but tension constant

138
Q

what is muscle tone

A

relatively constant tension y muscles over a long time

139
Q

what is treppe

A

stimulis frequency must allow muscle fiber to completely relax followed by another immediate stimulation

140
Q

what is fatigue

A

decreaased capacity to work and reduced efficiency of performance

141
Q

what are the types of fatigue

A

psychological- depends on emotional state of individual
muscular- results from ATP depletion
synaptic- occurs in NMJ due to lack of acetycholine

142
Q

what is rigor mortis

A

rigid muscles several hours after death. CA+ leaks into sarcoplasm and attaches to myosin heads

143
Q

what is creatine phosphate

A

during resting conditions stores energy to synthesize ATP - 10 seconds

144
Q

what is anaerobic respiration

A

no oxygen- breakdown of glucose- lasts up to 3 seconds

145
Q

what is aerobic respiration

A

rewuires oxygen- breakdown of glucose- lasts hours

146
Q

what does a motor unit consist of

A

single motor neuron and all muscle fibers

147
Q

what is oxygen debt

A

oxygen taken in by the body, above that required for resting metabolism after excersize.

148
Q

what happens in a slow twitch

A

contract slowly, smaller in diameter, better blood supply, more mitochondria, more fatigue resitant than fast twith, large amount of myoglobin.

149
Q

where is slow twitch found

A

postural muscles, more in lower limbs

150
Q

what is fast twitch

A

rapid response to nervous stimulation, less blood supply, few number of mitochondria

151
Q

where is fast twitch found

A

lower limbs in sprinter, upper limbs of most poeple.

152
Q

what is hpertrophy

A

increase in muscle size
increase in myofibrils
increase in nuclei
increase in strenght

153
Q

decrease in muscle size

A

what is anabolic steriods
increase muscle mass
skelatal muscle hypertrophies

154
Q

what is side effect of anabolic steriods

A

irratability, testicular atrophy, Cv disease, liver disease

155
Q

what are characteristics of smooth muscles

A

not straited, fibers smaller than those in skeltal muscle
spindle shaped
dense bodies
Ca2+ required to initiate contractions. binds to calmodulin.
cross bridges occurs

156
Q

what are types of smooth muscles

A

visceral- cells in sheets function as a unit. numerous gap junctions- waves of contraction
autorythmic
multiunit- cells groups of cells act independently
sheets, bundles

157
Q

what are the electrical properties of smooth muscles

A

slow waves of depolarization- cell to cell
does not follow all or none principle
may have pacemaker cells
contraction regulated by nervous system and hormones

158
Q

what is depolarization

A

spontaneous diffusion of Na+ and Ca2+ into cell

159
Q

what is smooth muscle regulation

A

receptors on plasma membrane respond not certain neurotransmitters or hormones
innerverted
neurotransmitters
hormones

160
Q

what are characteristics of the cardiac muscle

A 
only in heart
each cell usually one nucleus
intercalculated disksa nd gap junctions
autorythmic cells
action potentials have longer duration and longer refractory period
Ca2+ regulates contraction
161
Q

what is myopathy

A

degeneration of muscle cells
replaced by connective tissue
progressive

162
Q

what does inflammation cause

A

lactic acid

163
Q

what is fibrositis

A

reflex contraction of muscle fibers

164
Q

what is effects of aging on skeletal muscle

A

less muscle mass
increased time for muslce to contract in response to nervous stimuli
reduced stamina
increased recovery time
loss of muscle fibers
decreased density of cappillaries in muscle

165
Q

what is a joint or articulation

A

is place wher two bones come together

166
Q

how are joints named

A

according to the bones or parts of bones involved

167
Q

how are joints classified

A

structurally according to the type of connective tissue that binds them together and whether fluid is present betwene the bones.

168
Q

what is fiberous joint

A

bones are connected by fiberous tissue with no joint cavity, and little movement

169
Q

what are sutures

A

interdigitating bones held together by dense fiberous connective tissue.

170
Q

what are syndesmoses

A

joints consisting of fiberous ligaments

171
Q

what are gomphoses

A

joints in which pegs fit into sockets and are hed in place by peridontial ligaments

172
Q

what is synotoses

A

sutures and other joints can become ossified

173
Q

what are synchondroses

A

immovable joints in which bones are joined by hyaline cartilege

174
Q

what are symphyses

A

slightly movable joints made of fibrocartilege

175
Q

what are bursea

A

extensions of synovial joint cavities that protect skin, tendons, or bone from structures that could rub against them.

176
Q

what is range of motion

A

the amount of movement, active or passive, tha can occur iat a joint

177
Q

What can range of motion be affected by

A

several properties of the joint and surrounding tissues

178
Q

what is the temporomandibular joint

A

complex hinge and gliding jint between the temporal and mandibular bones

179
Q

what is the shoulder joint

A

balls and socket joint between the head of the humerous and the glenoid cavity of the scapula that permits a wide range of motion

180
Q

what is elbow joint

A

compound hinge joint between the humerus, the ulna, and the radius.

181
Q

what is the hip joint

A

ball and socket joint between the head of the femur and the acetabulum of the hip bone

182
Q

what is flexion

A

bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint to bring the articulating bones closer together.

183
Q

what is extensions

A

straightening movement that increases the angle of the joint to straighten the articulating bones

184
Q

what is dorsiflexion

A

movement of the foot toward the shin

185
Q

what is abduction

A

movement away from midline

186
Q

what is adduction

A

movement towrad the midline

187
Q

what is elevation

A

structure moves superiorly

188
Q

what is depression

A

structure moves anteriorly

189
Q

what is protraction

A

gliding motion that moves a structure in a anterior direction

190
Q

what is retraction

A

gliding motion that moves a structure in a posterior direction.

191
Q

what is lateral excursion

A

moving the mandible to either the right or left of the midline

192
Q

what is medial excursion

A

returns the mandible to the midline position

193
Q

what is opposition

A

movement of the thumb to touch the pinky

194
Q

what are muscles responsible for

A

maintenance of posture, respiration, production of body heat, communication, contriction of organs and vessels, heartbeat.

195
Q

what are the three types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal, smooth, cardiac

196
Q

What is skeletal muscle responsible for

A

most body movements, smooth muscle found in walls of hollow oragans and tubes and moves substances through them, cardiac muscle is in the heart and pumps blood

197
Q

what are the general properties of muscle tissue

A

contractility (shortens forcefully), excitability (respond to stimuli), extensibility (stretched and still contract), elasticity (recoilds to resting)

198
Q

what is perimysium

A

covers connective tissue

199
Q

what is epimysium

A

entire muscle surronded by connective tissue layer

200
Q

what is a muscle fiber

A

a single cell consisting of a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, several nuclei, and myofibrils.

201
Q

what are myofibrils

A

composed of two major protein fibers. actin and myosin.

202
Q

what are actin fibrils

A

consist of a double helix of f actin, tropomyosin, and troponin.

203
Q

what are myosin molecules

A

consist of two globular heads and a rodlike portion, constitute myosin myofilaments

204
Q

when does a cross bridge form

A

when the myosin binds to the actin

205
Q

what are sacromeres

A

actin and myosin

206
Q

what surronds a myosin myofilament

A

six actin myofilaments

207
Q

why do myofibrils appear straited

A

becuase of a bands and i bands.

208
Q

what does it means when a plasma membrane is polarized

A

there is a charge difference, called the resting membrane potential, exist across the PM

209
Q

why does the psma membrane become polarized

A

the tendency for K+ to diffuse out of the cell is resisted by the negative charges of ions and molecules inside the cell.

210
Q

what are ion channels responsible for

A

membrane permeability and the resting membrane potential

211
Q

what are two types of membrane potentials

A

ligand gated and voltage gated

212
Q

what are ion channels responsible for

A

producing action potentials.

213
Q

what is the resting membrane potential

A

the charge difference across the PM of cells

214
Q

what is depolarization

A

results from an increase in the permeability of the PM to NA+

215
Q

when is a all or none action potential produced

A

if depolarization reaches threshold

216
Q

when does the depolarization phase result

A

many Na+ channels open in an all or none fashion.

217
Q

when does repolarization phase occur

A

when the Na+ channels close and the K+ channels open breifly

218
Q

what does a synaptic cleft seperate

A

the presynaptic terminal of the axon from the motor end plate of the muscle fiber.

219
Q

what happens when acetylcholine is released fro the presynaptic terminal and binds to receptors of the motor end plate

A

changes membrane permeability and producing an action potential.

220
Q

when does contraction occur

A

mysoin heads bind to active sites on actin, myosin changes shape, and actin is pulled past the myosin.

221
Q

when does relaxation occur

A

when calcium is taken up by sarcoplasmic reticulum, ATP binds to myosin, and tropomyison moves back so that active sites on actin are no longer exposed to myosin.

222
Q

what is ATP required for

A

the cycle of cross bridge ofrmation, movement, and release, transport Ca2+ into sarcoplasmic reticulum, maintain normal concentration gradients

223
Q

what is a muscle twitch

A

the contraction of a single muscle fiber r a whole muscle in response to a stimulus.

224
Q

what are the parts of a muscle twitch

A

lag, concentration, relaxation

225
Q

what is a motor unit

A

one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls.

226
Q

when does a muscle contract with less than maximum force

A

if its inital lenght is shorter or longer than optimum

227
Q

what are isometric contraction

A

cause a change in muscle tension but no change in muscle lenght

228
Q

what are isotonic contractions

A

cause a change in muscle lenght but no change in muscle tension.

229
Q

what is treppe

A

an increase in the force of contraction during the first few contractions of a rested muscle

230
Q

what is incomplete tetanus

A

partial relaxation between contractions, complete tetanus is no relaxtion between contractions.

231
Q

what do concentric contractions cause

A

muscle s to shorten and tension to increase

232
Q

what do eccentric condition cause

A

muscle lenghten and tension to decrease gradually

233
Q

what is muscle tone

A

the maintenance of steady tension for long periods

234
Q

what are asynchronous contractions

A

motor units produce smooth, steady muscle contractions

235
Q

what are slow twitch muscle fibers

A

break down ATP slowly and have a well developed blood supply, many mitochondria, and myoglobin.

236
Q

what do type 2a muscle fibers have

A

well developed blood supply, more mitochondria, and more myoglobin.

237
Q

what do type 2b muscle fibers have

A

large amounts of glycogen, a poor blood supply, fewer mitochondria, and little myoglobin.

238
Q

what muslce fibers does anaerobic exercise develop

A

type 2b

239
Q

what muslce fibers does aerobic exercise produce

A

type 1 and changed type 2b into type 2a fast twitch

240
Q

where does energy for muscle contraction come from

A

ATP

241
Q

what is fatigue

A

the decreased ability to do work, can be caused by the central nervous system, depletion of ATP in muscles, or depletion of acetylcholine in neuromuscular junction.

242
Q

what is shape of smooth muscles

A

spindle shaped

243
Q

What do smooth muscles contain

A

actin myofilaments and myosin myofilament but are not straited.

244
Q

what are the two types smooth muscle

A

visceral and multiunit

245
Q

what are visceral smooth muscle fibers

A

contract slowly, have gap junctions and can be autorythmic

246
Q

what are multi unit smooth muscle fibers

A

contract rapidly in response to stimulation by neurons and function independently

247
Q

what do spontaneous contractions result from

A

Na_ and Ca2+ leakage into cells.

248
Q

what do smooth muscle contract autorythmically in response to

A

stretch or when stimulated by the autonomic nervous system or hormones

249
Q

what is important in regulating smooth muscle

A

hormones

250
Q

what are components of cardiac muscle

A

muscle fibers are straited, have a single nucleus, are connected by intercalculated disks and are capable of autorythmicacy.

A+P (8 decks)

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