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A+P > Chp 1-3 Book > Flashcards

Chp 1-3 Book Flashcards

1
Q

an imaging tech created from sonor technology

A

ultrasound

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2
Q

microscopic examination of a frozen tissue specimen is an application of ….

A

histology

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3
Q

what is a cell

A

the basic structural and functional units of all living orgnisms

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4
Q

the changes an organism undergoes through time

A

development

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5
Q

in a negetive feedback mechanism, the response of the effector

A

is to make the deviation from the set point smaller

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6
Q

what is one of the structures contained in the mediastinum

A

esophagus

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7
Q

the plane that cuts the body lengthwise and seperates the body into anterior and posterior portions

A

frontal

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8
Q

What is anatomy?

A

scientific discipline that investigates the bodys structure (shape/size)

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9
Q

What is physiology?

A

scientific investigation of the processes or function of living things

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10
Q

What are the four topics of anatomy?

A

regional- area by area

systemic- system by system

surface- external form and relation to deeper structures as Xray in anatomic imaging

cytology- the study of cell

histology- tissues

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11
Q

what are the three topics of physiology?

A

cell- processes in cells

neurophysiology- nervous system

cardiovascular- heart and blood vessels

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12
Q

anatomical imaging

A

radiography, ultrasound, mri to create picture of internal structures. allows amazing accuracy without trauma.

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13
Q

What are two subjects that encompass both anatomy and physiology?

A

pathology

exercise physiology

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14
Q

pathology

A

structural and functional changes caused by disease

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15
Q

exercise physiology

A

changes in structure and function caused by disease

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16
Q

what are the six levels of organization?

A

chemical- atoms/molecules

cell- functional unit of life

tissue- similar cells

organ- several tissues

organ system- several organs

organism- a living thing

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17
Q

What are the organ systems of the body?

A

integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive

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18
Q

What are the 6 characteristics of human organism?

A

organization- specific relationships and functions

metabolism- chemical reactions of body

responsiveness- ability to sense changes

growth- increase in size and number of cells

development- changes in organism over time

reproduction- new cells or new organism

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19
Q

What are the two types of development?

A

differentiation- change from general to specific

morphogenesis- change in shape of tissues, organs.

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20
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body

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21
Q

set point

A

the ideal normal value of a variable

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22
Q

what are the two types of feedback system?

A

negative and positive

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23
Q

what are the three components of a feedback system?

A

receptor - monitors the value of some variable

control center - establishes set point

effector - change the value of the variable in response

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24
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

any deviation from the set point is made smaller

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25
Q

what is positive feedback?

A

when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater

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26
Q

what is one example that positive feedback is good?

A

childbirth

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27
Q

What is the anatomical position?

A

body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward.

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28
Q

What is supine?

A

laying face up

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29
Q

What is prone?

A

lying face down

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30
Q

superior vs. inferior

A

toward the head and away from the head.

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31
Q

medial vs. lateral

A

toward the midline or away from

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32
Q

proximal vs distal

A

closer to point of attachment or farther away

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33
Q

superficial vs. deep

A

relative to the surface of the body

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34
Q

anterior vs posterior

A

forward and toward the back

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35
Q

What are the abdominal subdivisions

A

epigastic, hypochodriac, umbilical, lumbar, hypogastric, iliac

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36
Q

What are the four body planes

A

median

frontal or coronal

transverse

oblique

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37
Q

What are the three serous membranes?

A

pericardium- heart

pleura- lungs

peritoneum- abdominopelvic

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38
Q

What are the six kinds of imaging techniques?

A

radiography- xray

ultrasound - US

computed tomography- CT

digital subtraction angiography- DSA

magnetic resonance imaging- MRI

positron emission tomography- PET

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39
Q

radiography

A

shadowy negative of internal body structures

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40
Q

ultrasound

A

computer analyzed sound waves bounced off a structure

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41
Q

CT scan

A

computer analyzed composite of radiograph; shows slices of body

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42
Q

DSA

A

comparision of radiographs with and without dye

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43
Q

MRI

A

uses magnetism and radio waves to look for varying alignments of protons in soft tissues.

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44
Q

PET

A

uses radioactively labeled glucose- calculates metabolic activity of cells.

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45
Q

What is an element?

A

simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties

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46
Q

What is an atom?

A

smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristic of that element

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47
Q

neutron

A

no charge

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48
Q

proton

A

positive charge

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49
Q

electron

A

negatively charged particle

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50
Q

Chemical bonds

A

when an electron is transferred or shared.

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51
Q

ionic bond

A

when an electron is lost or shared

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52
Q

covalent bond

A

when electron is shared

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53
Q

What is a molecule?

A

two or more atoms combine

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54
Q

What is a compound?

A

two or more atoms combine (different atoms)

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55
Q

What is a catalyst?

A

a substance that increases a chemical reaction without being depleted.

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56
Q

What is an enzyme?

A

a protein catalyst.

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57
Q

What is inorganic chemistry?

A

deals with substances that do not contain carbon.

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58
Q

What is a solution?

A

any mixture of liquid, gas, or solid.

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59
Q

What is an acid?

A

a proton donor - Ph less than 7

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60
Q

What is a base?

A

a proton acceptor

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61
Q

What is organic chemistry?

A

study of carbon containing substances

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62
Q

What are the four major groups needed for living things

A

carbohydrates

lipids

proteins

nucleic acid

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63
Q

What is the basic structure of the cell?

A

plasma membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus

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64
Q

plasma membrane

A

cell membrane, forms outer bondary of the cell

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65
Q

cytoplasm

A

between the two - contains organelles, jelly substance

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66
Q

nucleus

A

directs cell activity

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67
Q

organelles

A

specilized structures that perform specific functions

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68
Q

What are the 4 functions of the cell

A
  1. cell metabolism and energy use
  2. synthesis of molecules
  3. communication
  4. reproduction and inheritence
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69
Q

How is DNA exchanged?

A

gametes cells exchange DNA during sexual intercourse

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70
Q

What does the plasma membrane do?

A

separate inter-cellular from extracellular.

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71
Q

What is membrane potential?

A

a charge across the membrane from intracellular and extracellular ion concentrations.

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72
Q

What are the two types of glycocalyx

A

glycolipids - carbs +lipids

glycoproteins - carbs +proteins

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73
Q

What makes up the membrane lipids

A

phospholipids and cholesterol

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74
Q

What are the two types of membrane proteins

A

integral or intrinsic- extend deeply into membrane

peripheral or extrinsic- attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer surfaces of lipid bilayer

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75
Q

What does membrane functioning depend on?

A

3D shape and chemical characteristics

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76
Q

Do membrane proteins matter?

A

marker molecules

attachment proteins

transport proteins

enzymes

receptor proteins

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77
Q

What are marker proteins

A

glycoproteins and glycolipids

cells identify each other.

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78
Q

What are the two types of attachment proteins

A

cadherins - cells to cells

integrins - integral proteins that attach to extracellular molecule.

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79
Q

What are the three types of transport proteins?

A

channel

carrier

ATP powered

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80
Q

What are the two types of Channel proteins?

A

nongated ion channels -always open. plasma membrane permeable to a few ions when the plasma membrane is at rest.

gated - opened/closed by stimuli

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81
Q

What are the two types of gated ion channels

A

ligand - opens - a small molecule binds to proteins or glycoproteins

voltage - opens - a change in charge across plasma membrane

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82
Q

What are the several forms of carrier proteins

A

uniporter- moves one particle

symporters- moves two particles in same direction at same time

antiporters - move two particles opposite directions at same time.

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83
Q

ATP powered transport depends on

A

concentration of substrate and ATP

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84
Q

What do the enzymes in the plasma membrane act to

A

catalyze reactions at outer/inner surface of plasma membrane.

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85
Q

What are the two types of receptor proteins

A

Receptors- linked to Channel Proteins

Receptors- linked to G protein complexes

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86
Q

Kinds of passive membrane transport

A

diffusion

osmosis

facilitated diffusion

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87
Q

kinds of active membrane transport

A

active transport

secondary active transport

vesicular transport

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88
Q

What is diffusion

A

movement of solutes in solution. higher concentration to lower concentration

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89
Q

What are the three parts of diffusion

A

concentration - difference between two points

viscosity - how easily liquid flows

temperature - affects the movement of particles.

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90
Q

What is osmosis?

A

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. water from area of low concentration to area of high concentration.

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91
Q

What is osmotic pressure?

A

force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis

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92
Q

isomotic

A

solutions with same concentration of solute particles.

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93
Q

What is hyperosmotic

A

solution with a greater concentration of solute.

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94
Q

What is hyposmotic

A

solution with a lesser concentration of solute.

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95
Q

isotonic solution

A

cell neither shrinks nor swells

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96
Q

hypertonic solution

A

cell shrinks -crenation

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97
Q

hypotonic solution

A

cell swells -lysis

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98
Q

What does facilitated diffusion do?

A

move large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across membrane.

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99
Q

What does active transport depend on?

A

concentration of substrate and ATP

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100
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

ions or molecules move in same or different direction.

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101
Q

What is endocytosis

A

internalization of substances - formation of vesicle.

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102
Q

What are the types of endocytosis

A

phagocytosis

pinocytosis

receptor mediated endocytosis

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103
Q

What is exocytosis

A

secretions expelled from the cell

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104
Q

What are the four parts of the cytoplasm

A

cytosol

cytoskeleton

cytoplasmic inclusions

organelles

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105
Q

What are the three parts of the cytoskeleton

A

microtubules

intermediate filaments

actin filaments

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106
Q

What is the cytosol

A

fluid portion of the cytoplasm

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107
Q

What does the cytoskeleton do

A

supports the cell

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108
Q

What are microtubules

A

hollow, internal scaffold, transport in cell, cell division.

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109
Q

What are cytoplasmic inclusions

A

aggregates of chemicals

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110
Q

What are organelles

A

small specilized structures- with specific structure/function.

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111
Q

What is part of chromosome structure

A

DNA + proteins

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112
Q

What are the two types of ribosomes

A

free and attached.

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113
Q

What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum

A

rough - attached - proteins produced and modified

smooth - not attached - lipids and carbohydrates

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114
Q

What is the purpose of the gogli apparatus

A

modifications, packaging, distribution of proteisn and lipids

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115
Q

What are the two membranes on the mitochondria

A

cristae

matrix

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116
Q

Where are microtubules made

A

centrosome

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117
Q

Whats cilia

A

appendages projecting from cell surfaces

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118
Q

Whats microvilli

A

extension of plasma membrane

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119
Q

What is a gene

A

functional unit of heredity

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120
Q

What are the two types of genes

A

structural- serve as template fro mRNA

regulatory- control which structural genes transcribes in given tissue

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121
Q

What is transcription

A

DNA used to form mRNA

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122
Q

What is translation

A

synthesis of a protein at the ribosomes using mRNA< tRNA and rRNA.

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123
Q

What four things happen in transcription

A

DNA strands are seperated

RNA polymerase binds at promoter region

RNA polymerase helps form mRNA chain using DNA

transcription ends at terminator sequence

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124
Q

What does mRNA do?

A

directs polypeptide production.

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125
Q

Where does translation occur

A

ribosomes in cytoplasm

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126
Q

What is an interphase

A

phase between cell divisions

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127
Q

What are the four phases of cell division

A

prophase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase

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128
Q

What happens in metaphase

A

chromosomes are aligned at nuclear equator

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129
Q

What happens in anaphase

A

spindle fibers seperate the chromatids

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130
Q

What happens in telophase

A

chromosomes decondense

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131
Q

What happens in prophase

A

nuclear envelope disintegrates

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132
Q

What is cyrokinesis

A

cytoplasmic division.

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133
Q

What are the two steps in replication of DNA

A

DNA strands seperate

old strands become templates for new strands to form.

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134
Q

Human anatomy and physiology is the basis for what?

A

understanding disease

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135
Q

What does the word anatomy mean?

A

to dissect or cut apart and separate the parts of the body for study.

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136
Q

What does developmental anatomy study

A

the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood.

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137
Q

What is embryology

A

a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes from conception to the end of the eight week of development.

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138
Q

What is cytology

A

examines the structural features of cells

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139
Q

What is histology

A

examines tissues, which are composed of cells and the materials surronding them

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140
Q

What is gross anatomy

A

the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of microscope, can be approached either systemically or regionally.

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141
Q

What is a system

A

a group of structures that have one or more common functions, such as cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular systems.

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142
Q

What is surface anatomy

A

involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body.

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143
Q

What are anatomical anomalies?

A

physical characteristics that differ from the normal pattern.

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144
Q

What is celWhat are the two types of systemic physiologyl physiology

A

examines the processes occuring in cells such as energy production from food

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145
Q

What is systemic physiology

A

considers the functions of organ systems.

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146
Q

What are the two types of systemic physiology

A

cardiovascular

neurophysiology

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147
Q

What is pathology

A

is the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions, as well as the structural and functional changes resulting in disease.

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148
Q

What is exercise physiology?

A

focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise.

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149
Q

What are the six levels of organization

A

chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

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150
Q

What does the chemical level involve

A

how atoms, interact and combine into molecules.

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151
Q

What does molecules structure determine

A

its function

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152
Q

What are cells

A

are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.

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153
Q

What do organelles do?

A

carry out particular functions, such as digestion and movement, for the cell.

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154
Q

What is human health dependent upon?

A

the health of our microbiota, the good bacteria.

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155
Q

What is a tissue

A

is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them.

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156
Q

What are the 4 types of tissues?

A

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

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157
Q

What is an organ

A

is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions.

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158
Q

What determines the function of a tissue?

A

the characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials.

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159
Q

What are the major goals when studying human physiology

A

to understand and predict the body responses to stimuli and to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in a constantly changing environment.

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160
Q

What is an organ system

A

A group of organs working together to perform a particular function

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161
Q

What are the 11 major organ system?

A

integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.

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162
Q

What is an organism

A

is any living thing considered as a whole- whether composed of one cell, or trillions of cells

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163
Q

organization

A

refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.

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164
Q

What is metabolism

A

is the ability to use energy and to perform vital functions.

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165
Q

The shape of a molecule determines its what

A

function

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166
Q

What is metabolism necessary for?

A

vital functions like responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction.

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167
Q

What is responsiveness

A

an organism ability to sense changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes.

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168
Q

What does growth refer to?

A

an increase in the size or number of cells, which produces an overall enlargement of all or parts of an organism.

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169
Q

What is development

A

the changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death.

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170
Q

differentiation

A

involves changes in a cells structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state.

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171
Q

What is morphogenesis

A

is the change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism.

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172
Q

What is reproduction

A

the formation of new cells or new organism.

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173
Q

What are the six characteristics of life

A

organization

metabolism

responsiveness

growth

development

reproduction

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174
Q

homeostasis

A

the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body

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175
Q

What must a body do to acheive homeostasis

A

the body must activly regulate conditions that are constantly changing

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176
Q

What must happen for a cell to function normally?

A

the volume, temp, and chemical content of their environment must be maintained within a narrow range.

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177
Q

What is one of the most well known examples of homeostasis

A

body temperature

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178
Q

What is negative feedback

A

when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted.

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179
Q

What are the three components of a negative feedback system

A

receptor, control center, effector.

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180
Q

What is a receptor

A

monitors the value of a variable such as body temp by detecting stimuli

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181
Q

What is the control center

A

determines the set point for the variable and receives input from the receptor about the variable

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182
Q

What is an effector

A

can adjust the value of the variable when directed y the control center, usually back towards the set point.

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183
Q

What is Orthostatic hypotension

A

is a significant drop in blood pressure upon standing

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184
Q

What are metabolic pathways

A

are chemical reactions driven by biological protein catalysts called enzymes.

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185
Q

What is positive feedback

A

occurs when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater.

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186
Q

What is an examples of a normal positive feedback

A

birth, blood clots

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187
Q

What are the two basic principles about homeostatic mechanisms

A

many disease states result from the failure of negative feedback to maintain homeostasis.

some positive feedback mechanism can be detrimental instead of helpful.

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188
Q

What is one example of a detrimental positive feedback mechanism

A

inadequate delivery of blood to cardiac muscle

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189
Q

What is the anatomical position

A

refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.

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190
Q

What does the sufix itis mean

A

inflammation

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191
Q

what does anterior mean

A

in front of

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192
Q

What does posterior mean

A

behind

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193
Q

What does ventral mean

A

towards the belly

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194
Q

What does dorsal mean

A

toward the back

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195
Q

proximal

A

closer to point of attachment

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196
Q

What does distal mean

A

farther from point of attachment

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197
Q

What does lateral mean

A

away from midline

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198
Q

What does medial mean

A

toward the midline

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199
Q

What is the term superior exchanged with

A

cephalic

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200
Q

What is the term inferior exchanged with

A

caudal

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201
Q

What does the central region of the body consist of

A

the head, neck, and trunk

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202
Q

What regions can the trunk be divided into

A

thorax, abdomen, pelvis.

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203
Q

What are the nine regions of the abdomen

A

epigastric, hypochindriac, umbilical, lumbar, hypogastric, iliac.

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204
Q

Saggital plane

A

seperates the body into right and left halves.

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205
Q

Median plane

A

saggital plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing into equal halves.

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206
Q

Transverse plane

A

runs parrallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.

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207
Q

Frontal plane

A

divides the body tino front and back halves.

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208
Q

What are the two types of internal cavities

A

dorsal and ventral body cavities.

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209
Q

What does the dorsal cavity enclose?

A

the organs of the nervous system, brain, and spinal cord.

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210
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the dorsal body cavity

A

cranial and vertebral

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211
Q

What are the two divisions of the ventral body cavity

A

thoracic cavity, abdominopelvic.

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212
Q

What can the thoraicic cavity be divided into

A

pleural cavaties, medial mediastinum

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213
Q

What is the parietal serous membrane

A

the layer that lines the walls of the cavity

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214
Q

What is the visceral serous membrane

A

the layer covering the internal organs.

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215
Q

What is the pleural cavity

A

contains the lungs

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216
Q

What is the peritoneal cavity

A

houses liver, digestive organs, and reproductive.

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217
Q

What are mesenteries

A

regions of double folded visceral peritoneum.

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218
Q

What do mesenteries provide

A

a pathway fro nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs.

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219
Q

What does retroperitoneal mean

A

behind the peritoneum.

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220
Q

What is pericarditis

A

an inflammation of the serous pericardium.

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221
Q

What is cardiac tamponade

A

is a potentially fatal condition in which a large volume of fluid or blood accumulates in the pericardial cavity and compresses the heart from the outside.

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222
Q

What are some causes of cardiac tamponade

A

rupture of the heart wall, rupture of blood vessels in pericardium, damage to pericardium due to radiation therapy, and trauma.

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223
Q

What is pleurisy

A

inflammation of the pleura

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224
Q

What is peritonitis

A

inflammation of the peritoneum

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225
Q

What does chemicals compose?

A

the structures of the body and the interactions of chemicals with one another are responsible for the body’s functions.

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226
Q

What is chemistry

A

the scientific discipline concerned with the atomic composition of substances and the reactions they undergo.

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227
Q

What is matter

A

anything that occupies space

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228
Q

What is mass

A

the amount of matter in an object.

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229
Q

What is weight

A

the gravitational force acting on an object of a given force.

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230
Q

What is the international unit for mass

A

kilogram

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231
Q

What is an element

A

the simpliest type of matter, having unique chemical properties.

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232
Q

What is an atom

A

the smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristics of that element. .

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233
Q

What is an element composed of

A

atoms of only one kind.

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234
Q

What does the characteristics of matter result from

A

the structure, organization, behavior of atoms

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235
Q

What is an electron cloud

A

the region where electrons are most likely to be found

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236
Q

How is each element uniquely defined

A

by the number of protons in the atoms of that element.

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237
Q

What is atomic number

A

an element that is equal to the number of protons in each atom and because the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons, the atomic number is also the number of electrons.

238
Q

What is the mass number

A

the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom.

239
Q

What is an isotope

A

are two or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of nuetrons.

240
Q

What is a dalton

A

unified atomic mass unit. a carbon mass with 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

241
Q

What is atomic mass

A

is the average mass of its naturally occurring isotopes, taking into account the relative abundance of each isotope.

242
Q

What is molar mass

A

the mass of 1 mole of a substance expressed in grams.

243
Q

What is the chemical behavior of an atom dependent on

A

its electrons

244
Q

What is electron shells

A

the energy levels are often depicted as concentric rings.

245
Q

What is a valence shell

A

the outermost shell

246
Q

What determines an atoms chemical nature

A

the number of electrons in the valence shell

247
Q

What does inert mean

A

if the valence shell is full

248
Q

What does chemically reactive mean

A

if an atoms valence shell is not full

249
Q

What is the octet rule

A

the tendency of atoms to combine with other atoms until each has 8 electrons.

250
Q

What are the two ways atoms achieve an octet

A

the transfer of electrons between atoms

the sharing of electrons between atoms

251
Q

What is electronegativity

A

the ability of an atoms nucleus to attract electrons.

252
Q

What are the two major types of chemical bonds

A

ionic and covalent.

253
Q

What is an ion

A

when the numbers of protons and electrons are no longer equal, and called a charged particle.

254
Q

What are cations

A

positively charged ions

255
Q

When does an ionic bond form

A

when electrons are transferred between atoms, creating oppositely charged ions.

256
Q

What is significance of calcium

A

functins in blood clotting, muscle contraction

257
Q

What is sig of sodium

A

membrane potentials, water balance

258
Q

what is sig of potassium

A

membrane potentials

259
Q

What is sig of phosphate

A

parts of bone and teeth. functions in energy exchange, acid-base soltuion

260
Q

what is sig of iron

A

red blood cell formation

261
Q

what is sig of magnesium

A

necessary fro enzymes

262
Q

what is sig of iodide

A

present in thyroid hormones.

263
Q

When does a covalent bond form

A

when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

264
Q

When does the sharing of electrons occur

A

when the atoms have similar electronegativities.

265
Q

What is a single covalent bond

A

the sharing of one pair of electrons by two atoms

266
Q

What is a double covalent bond

A

when two atoms share 4 electrons, 2 from each atom

267
Q

What is nonpolar covalent bonds

A

when electrons are shared equally between atoms

268
Q

What is polar covalent bonds

A

where the two atoms involved in a covalent bond have different electronegativities.

269
Q

What is a molecule

A

is composed of two or more atoms chemically combined to form a structure that behaves as a independent unit.

270
Q

What does a molecule normally consist of

A

consists of two or more different types of atoms

271
Q

What is a compound

A

a substance resulting from the chemical combination of two or more different types of atoms.

272
Q

What is a chemical formula

A

the formulas shows the kind of number of atoms present

273
Q

What is an electron dot formula

A

the bonding electrons are shown as dots between the symbols of the atoms

274
Q

What is bond line formula

A

the bonding electrons are shown as lines between teh symbols of the atoms

275
Q

What is models

A

atoms are shown as different sized and different colored spheres.

276
Q

What can the molecular mass of a molecule or compound be determined by

A

adding up the atomic mass of its atoms

277
Q

What is intermolecular forces

A

the weak electrostatic attractiosn that exist between oppositely charged parts of molecules, or beteen ions and molecules.

278
Q

What do intermolecular forces result from

A

the attraction of the positive end of one polar molecule to the negative end of another polar molecule.

279
Q

When does a hydrogen bond form

A

if the positively charged hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the negatively charged oxygen, nitrogen, or flourine of another molecule.

280
Q

What is an ionic bond

A

a complete transfer of electrons between two atoms results in seperate positively charged and negative charged ions.

281
Q

What is polar covalent bond

A

an unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms results in a slightly positive charge on one side of the molecule and a slightly negative charge.

282
Q

What is a nonpolar covalent bond

A

an equal sharing of electrons between two atoms results in an even charge distribution among the atoms of the molecule.

283
Q

What is a hydrogen bond

A

the attraction of oppositely charged ends of one polar molecule to another polar molecule hold molecules or parts of molecules together.

284
Q

What is solubility

A

the ability of one substance to dissolve in another.

285
Q

What does dissociate mean

A

when ionic compounds dissolve in water or seperate from one another because cations are attracted to the negative ends of water and anions attracted to the positive end of water.

286
Q

What is electrolytes

A

cations and anions that dissociate in water because they have the capacity to conduct and electric current, which is the flow of charged particles.

287
Q

What is an electrocardiogram

A

a recording of electric currents produced by the heart

288
Q

What is an nonelectrolytes

A

molecules that do no dissociate form solutions that do not conduct electricity

289
Q

What is an example of a nonelectrolyte

A

pure water

290
Q

maintaining the proper balance of electrolytes is important for?

A

keeping the body hydrated, controlling blood pH, and ensuring the proper function of muscles and nerves.

291
Q

When does a chemical reaction occur

A

when atoms, ions, molecules , or compounds interact either to form or to break chemical bonds.

292
Q

What are reactants

A

the substance that enter into a chemical reaction

293
Q

What is products

A

substances that result from the chemical reaction.

294
Q

What are three important points that cna be made about chemical reactions.

A

less complex reactants are combined to form a larger more complex product.

a reactant can be broken down, or decomposed, into simplier, lexx complex products.

atoms are generally associated with other atoms through chemical bonding or intermolecular forces.

295
Q

hat is a synthesis reaction

A

when two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product.

296
Q

Whats anabolism

A

the collective term for synthesis reactions in the body

297
Q

What is dehydration reaction

A

synthesis reactions in which water is a product

298
Q

What is a decomposition reaction

A

the reverse of a synthesis reaction. a larger reactant is chemically broken down into two or more slammer products.

299
Q

The anabolic and catabolic reactions int he body are collectively called

A

metabolism

300
Q

What is equilibrium

A

when the rate of a product formation is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.

301
Q

What are oxidatio reduction reactions

A

chemical reactions that result from the exchange of electrons between the reactants

302
Q

What is oxidation

A

the loss of an electron by an atom

303
Q

What is reductionv

A

the gain of an electron

304
Q

What is an oxidation reduction reactions

A

one atom partially or completely loses an electron and another atom gains that electron.

305
Q

What is energy

A

the capacity to do work

306
Q

What is potential energy

A

stored energy that could do work

307
Q

What is kinetic energy

A

is the form of energy that is actually doing work and moving matter.

308
Q

What is mechanical energy

A

results from the position or movement of objects.

309
Q

What is chemical energy

A

is a form of potential energy within the chemical bonds of a substance.

310
Q

What are the two types of energy

A

chemical heat

311
Q

What is heat energy

A

is a form of energy that flows from a hotter object to a cooler object.

312
Q

When does a chemical reaction occur

A

only when molecules with suficent kinetic energy collide with each other.

313
Q

What is activation energy

A

the minimum amount of energy that the reactants must have to start a chemical reaction.

314
Q

What is a catalyst

A

substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being permeately changed or depleted themselves.

315
Q

enzymes

A

increase the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy necessary fro the reaction to begin.

316
Q

What can affect the speed of chemical reactions

A

temperatures

317
Q

What is inorganic chemistry

A

generally deals with substances that do not contain carbon

318
Q

What is organic chemicstry

A

is the study of carbon contianing substances

319
Q

What are some important roles of inorganic molecules

A

oxygen we breath, carbon dioxide we exhale, water essential for life, calcium phosphate that makes up our bones, metals required for protein functions

320
Q

What does hydrophobic mean

A

molecules that lack attraction to water

321
Q

What are two of the unique properties of water

A

cohesion and adhesion.

322
Q

What is cohesion

A

the attraction of water to another water molecule

323
Q

What is adhesion

A

the attraction of water to other molecules.

324
Q

What are the two ways that water helps stabilize temperature

A

absorption of heat and evaporation.

325
Q

What are the two ways that water protects the body

A

lubricant and cushion.

326
Q

What is a mixture

A

a combination of two or more substances physically blended together, but not chemically combines.

327
Q

What is a solution

A

any mixture in which the substances are uniformly distributed.

328
Q

What is a suspension

A

a mixture containing materials that seperate from each other unless they are continually, physically blended together.

329
Q

What is an example of a suspension

330
Q

What is a colloid

A

a mixture in which a dispersed substance or particle os unevely distributed through the mixture.

331
Q

What does osmolality reflect

A

the number, not the type of particles in a solution.

332
Q

What is another name for a basic solution

333
Q

When does acidosis result

A

if blood ph drops below 7.35

334
Q

When does alkalosis result

A

if blood ph rises above 7.45

335
Q

What are buffers

A

chemicals that ressit changes in pH when either acids or bases are added to a solution.

336
Q

What is a conjugate base

A

what remains of an acid after the H proton is lost

337
Q

When is a conjugate acid formed

A

when a H is transferred to the conjugate base

338
Q

What is oxygen

A

an inorganic molecule consisting of two oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent bond.

339
Q

What is carbon dioxide

A

consists of one carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms.

340
Q

What are the four major groups of organic molecules essential to living organism

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

341
Q

What are carbohydrates

A

are organic molecules composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and range in size from small to very large.

342
Q

What are carbohydrates three major roles in the body

A

they are parts of other organic molecules

they are broken down to provide energy

when undigested they provide bulk in feces.

343
Q

large carbohydrates are composed of numerous simple building blocks called

A

monosaccharides.

344
Q

What are isomers

A

molecules that have the same number and types of atoms but differ in their three dimensional arrangement

345
Q

What are disaccharides

A

composed of two monosacchardies bound together through a dehydration reaction.

346
Q

What are polysacchardies

A

long chains of monosaccharides.

347
Q

What are two important polysaccharides

A

starch and cellulose

348
Q

What are lipids

A

a major group of organic molecules that are defines as being relatively insoluble in water.

349
Q

What is the important function of lipids in the body

A

they provide protection and insulation, help regulate many physiological processes, and form plasma membranes.

350
Q

What are the major classes of lipids

A

fats, phospholopids, eicosanoids, steroids, fat soluble vitamins

351
Q

What are the roles of lipids in the body

A

protection

insulation

regulation

vitamins

structure

energy

352
Q

What does saturation refer to

A

the numbe of hydrogen atoms in athe carbon chain

353
Q

polyunsaturated fats

A

two or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms.

354
Q

Trans fats

A

unsaturated fats that have been chemically altered by the addition of hydrogen.

355
Q

What are steroids

A

lipids that have four ringlike structures

356
Q

what are some important steroid molecules

A

cholesterol, bile salts, reproductive hormones estrogen, progesterone, testosterone.

357
Q

What are proteins important functions in the body

A

regulate body processes, act as transportation system, provide protection, help muscle contract, provide structure and energy.

358
Q

What is the role of proteins in the body

A

regulation, transport, protection, contraction, structure, energy

359
Q

What are the basic building blocks for proteins.

A

amino acids.

360
Q

What are peptide bonds

A

covalent bonds formed between amino acid molecules during protein synthesis

361
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein determined by

A

the sequence of the amino acids bound by peptide bonds.

362
Q

What is denaturation

A

is the change in shape caused by the breaking of hydrogen bonds.

363
Q

What is a domain

A

a folded sequence of 100-200 amino acids within a protein.

364
Q

What is a enzyme

A

a protein catalyst that increases the rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds without the enzyme being permanently changed.

365
Q

What is the active site

A

the region of the enzyme that binds reactants and catalyzes their conversion to products.

366
Q

What is a lipase

A

enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of lipids

367
Q

What is protease

A

an enzyme that breaks down proteins

368
Q

What doe enzymes control

A

the rate at which most chemical reactions proceed in living systems.

369
Q

What are the two types of nucleic acids

A

deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic

370
Q

What does DNA contain

A

the information that determines the structure of proteins.

371
Q

What are the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA

A

nucleotides

372
Q

What are complementary base pairs

A

bases held together by hydrogen bonds.

373
Q

What does antiparallel mean

A

that the two strands lie side by side but there sugar phophate extend in opposite directions because of the orientation of the nucleotides.

374
Q

What is a gene

A

a sequence of DNA bases that directs the synthesis of proteins or RNA molecules

375
Q

What do genes determine

A

the type and sequence of amino acids in protein molecules.

376
Q

What is ATP

A

the most important molecule fro storing and providing energy in all living organisms.

377
Q

What is ATP used for

A

providing energy for other chemical reactions or toe drive cell processes, such as muscle contraction.

378
Q

What is ATP often called

A

the energy currency of cells because it is capable of both storing and proving energy.

379
Q

Where do all cells originate from

A

a single fertilized cell

380
Q

What are important characteristics that are important to each cell type?

A

cell metabolism and energy use, synthesis of molecules, communication between cells, and inheritence and reproduction.

381
Q

What is the plasma membrane?

A

cell membrane that forms the outer boundary of the cell, through which the cell interacts with its external environment.

382
Q

What does the nucleus do?

A

directs cell activities

383
Q

What is the plasma membrane?

A

lipid bilayer composed of phospholopids and cholesterol.

384
Q

What is the function of the plasma membrane?

A

functions are the outer boundary of the cell. control the entry and exit of substances. receptor proteins function in intercellular communication.

385
Q

What is the nucleus

A

a double membrane with nuclear pores. contains chromatin which condenses to become visiable mitotic chromosomes during cell division.

386
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

it is the control center of the cell. DNA within the nucleus regulates protein synthesis

387
Q

What is the purpose of rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

synthesizes proteins, which are usually transported to Gogli apparatus.

388
Q

What is the purpose of cytoplasmic organelles?

A

serves as site of protein synthesis.

389
Q

What are cytoplasmic organelles?

A

ribosomal RNA and proteins form large and small subunits

390
Q

What is the role of lipids in the body

A

protection

insulation

regulation

vitamins

structure

energy

391
Q

What are the roles of protein in the body

A

regulation

transport

protection

contraction

structure

energy

392
Q

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

membranous tubules and flattened sacs with attached ribosomes.

393
Q

What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

membranous tubules and flattened sacs with no attached ribosomes.

394
Q

What is the golgi apparatus

A

flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other

395
Q

What is the purpose of golgi apparatus

A

modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use.

396
Q

What is a lysosome

A

pinched off golgi apparatus

397
Q

What is the purpose of lysosomes

A

contains digestive systems

398
Q

What is purpose of peroxisome

A

serves as one site of lipid and amino acid degradation.

399
Q

What is purpose of proteasomes

A

break down proteins in cytoplasm

400
Q

What is proteasomes

A

tubelike protein complexes in the cytoplasm

401
Q

What is the purpose of mitochondria

A

are major sites of ATP synthesis when oxygen is available.

402
Q

What is the purpose of centrioles

A

serve as centers for microtubule formation. determine cell polarity during cell division.

403
Q

What is purpose of cilia

A

move material over the surface of cells

404
Q

What is purpose of microvilli

A

increase surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and secretion.

405
Q

How do cells communicate with each other?

A

chemical and electrical signals

406
Q

How do muscle cells respond to chemical signals

A

contracting or relaxing

407
Q

What are two types of basic microscopes

A

light and electron

408
Q

What happens with a transmission electron microscope?

A

a beam of electrons is passed through an object

409
Q

What happens with a scanning electron microscope

A

beams of electrons is reflected off the surface of the object.

410
Q

What happens with an atomic force miscroscope?

A

scans the sample using a tiny mechanical probe that can be deflected by small forces between the probe and sample.

411
Q

What are intracellular substances

A

those inside the cell.

412
Q

What are extracellular substances

A

those outside the cell

413
Q

what is the membrane potential

A

an electric charge difference across the plasma membrane

414
Q

is the outside or the inside of the plasma membrane positively charged

415
Q

What does the plasma membrane primarily consist of?

A

lipids and proteins, and carbohydrates

416
Q

What are the two types of lipids

A

phospholipids

cholesterol

417
Q

lipid bilayer

A

a double layer of phospholipid molecules

418
Q

What is lydrophilic

A

attracted to water

419
Q

What is hydrophobic

A

avoid water

420
Q

What does the fluid mosaic model describe

A

the plasma membrane as being rigid nor static in structure.

421
Q

What are several importances in the nature of the lipid bilayer

A

it provides an important means of distributing molecules within plasma membrane

slight damage to the membrane can be repaired because the phospholipids tend to reassemble around damaged sites

the fluid nature of the lipid bilayer enables membranes to fuse with one another.

422
Q

What is a major factor in determining the fluid nature of a membrane

A

the amount of cholesterol in a particular plasma membrane.

423
Q

What is an important function of the cholesterol

A

it limits the movement of phospholipids, providing stability to the plasma membrane.

424
Q

Integral membrane proteins

A

penetrate deeply into the lipid bilayer, in many cases extending from one surface to the other.

425
Q

Peripheral membrane proteins

A

attached to either the inner or the outer surface of the lipid bilayer.

426
Q

What do integral membrane proteins consist of

A

regions made up of amino acids with hydrophobic R groups and other regions of amino acids with hydrophilic R groups.

427
Q

Protein function is determined by what

A

the proteins chemical characteristics, three dimensional shape of the protein

428
Q

What can membrane proteins function as

A

marker molecules, attachment, transport, receptor, enzymes.

429
Q

What is the function of marker molecules

A

allow cells to identify other cells or other molecules.

430
Q

What is function of attachment proteins.

A

anchor cells to other cells or to extracellular molecules

431
Q

What is function of transport proteins

A

form passageways through the plasma membrane allowing specific ions or molecules to enter or exit the cell

432
Q

What is function of carrier proteins

A

move ions or molecules across the membrane. binding of specific chemical to carrier proteins causes changes in the shape of the carrier proteins

433
Q

What is function of ATP powered pumps

A

move specific ions or molecules across the membrane require ATP molecules to function.

434
Q

What is function of receptor proteins

A

function as binding sites for chemical signals in the extracellular fluid.

435
Q

What is function of enzymes

A

catalyze chemical reactions either inside or outside cells.

436
Q

What are glycoproteins

A

proteins with attached carbohydrates.

437
Q

What are glycolipids

A

lipids with attached carbohydrates

438
Q

What are attachment proteins

A

integral proteins that allow cells to attach to other cells or to extracellular molecules

439
Q

What are cadherins

A

proteins that attach cells to other cells.

440
Q

What are two examples of attachment proteins

A

cadherins and integrins

441
Q

What are integrins

A

proteins that attach cells to extracellular molecules.

442
Q

What are transport proteins

A

integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to move from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

443
Q

What are the three characteristics of transport proteins

A

specificity

competition

saturation

444
Q

What does specificity mean?

A

that each transport protein binds to an transports only a certain type of molecule or ion.

445
Q

What is competition

A

the result of molecules with similar shape binding to the transport protein

446
Q

an imaging tech created from sonor technology

A

ultrasound

447
Q

microscopic examination of a frozen tissue specimen is an application of ….

448
Q

what is a cell

A

the basic structural and functional units of all living orgnisms

449
Q

the changes an organism undergoes through time

A

development

450
Q

What does saturation mean

A

that the rate of movement of molecules across the membrane is limited by the number of available transport proteins.

451
Q

What are the three major classes of transport proteins

A

channel proteins

carrier proteins

Atp powered pumps

452
Q

What are channel proteins

A

one or more integral membrane proteins arranged so that they form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane.

453
Q

What determines which types of ions can pass through the channel

A

the charges in the hydrophilic part of the channel proteins.

454
Q

What do channel proteins include

A

leak ion channels and gated ion channels

455
Q

What are leak ion channels

A

nongated ion channels - always open and are responsible for the plasma membranes permeability to ions when the plasma membrane is at rest.

456
Q

What are gated ion channels

A

open and close depending on certian conditions of the cell.

457
Q

What does ligand mean

A

a generic term for any chemical signal molecule used by cells to communicate with each other

458
Q

What are ligand gated ion channels

A

ion channels that respond to ligand signals.

459
Q

What are voltage gated ion channels

A

gated ion channels open or close when there is a change in membrane potential.

460
Q

What is cystic fibrosis

A

a genetic disorder that affects chloride ion channels.

461
Q

What are carrier protiens

A

integral membrane proteins that move ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

462
Q

What does the binding of the specific ion or molecule cause

A

the carrier proteins to change shape and release the bound ion or molecule to the other side of the plasma membrane.

463
Q

In what three ways can the movement of ions or molecules by carrier proteins be classified

A

uniport

symport

antiport

464
Q

What uniport

A

the movement of one specific ion or molecule across the membrane

465
Q

What is symport

A

the movement of two different ions or molecules in the same direction across the plasma membrane

466
Q

What is antiport

A

the movement of two differnt ions or molecules in opposite directions across the plasma membrane.

467
Q

What are ATP powered pumps

A

transport proteins that require cellular energy to move specific ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

468
Q

What are receptor proteins

A

membrane proteins or glycoprotiens that have an exposed receptor site on the outer cell surface.

469
Q

What causes a change in the permeability of the plasma membrane to the specific ions passing through the ion channels.

A

when checmical signals, or ligands, bind to these receptors, the combination alters the three dimensional structure of the protiens of the ion channels, causing the cannels either to open or to close.

470
Q

The G protein complex consists of what three proteins

A

alpha, beta, gamma

471
Q

When does the G protein complex interact with a receptor protein

A

when a chemical signal is bound to the receptor protein.

472
Q

an activated subunit can stimulate a cell response in what three ways.

A

by means of intercellular chemical signals

the opening of ion channels in the plasma membrane

the activation of enzymes associated with the plasma membrane.

473
Q

The cells survival depends on the maintenence of what differences

A

intracellular material has a different composition than the extracellular material.

474
Q

What is a vesicle

A

a small membrane bound sac.

475
Q

What is osmosis

A

water diffuses across a selectively permeable membrane

476
Q

What is diffusion

A

random movement of molecules results in net movement from areas of higher to lower concentration.

477
Q

What is active transport

A

ATP powered pumps bind to substances and move them across the plasma membrane

478
Q

What is secondary active transport

A

Ions are moved across the plasma membrane by active transport, which establishes an ion concetration gradient

479
Q

What is endocytosis

A

the plasma membrane forms a vesicle aroudn the substances to be transported and the vesicle is taken into the cell

480
Q

What happens during passive membrane transport

A

the cell does not expend metabolic energy

481
Q

What does passive membrane transport include

A

diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

482
Q

What is a solution

A

consists of one or more substances dissolved in the predominant liquid or gas.

483
Q

What is diffusion

A

the movement of solutes from an area of higher solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration.

484
Q

When does a concetration difference occur

A

when the solutes are not evenly distributed in a solvent

485
Q

What is the concentration gradient

A

the concetration difference between two points, divided by the distance between the two points.

486
Q

what causes the concetration gradient to increase

A

increase the concetration difference between the two points or decreasing the distance between the two points.

487
Q

What is the rate of diffusion influenced by

A

the magnitude of the concentration gradient, the temp of the solution, the size of diffusing molecules , the viscocity of solvent.

488
Q

What happens with the greater concentration gradient

A

the greater the number of solute particles moving from a higher to a lower solute concentration.

489
Q

What is viscocity

A

is a measure of a fluids resitance to flow.

490
Q

What is osmosis

A

the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane , such as a plasma membrane.

491
Q

Why is osmosis important to cells

A

large volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function.

492
Q

What is competition

A

the result of molecules with similar shape binding to the transport protein

493
Q

What is osmotic pressure

A

the force required to prevent water from moving by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane.

494
Q

What are three terms to describe the osmotic pressure of solutions

A

isosmotic, hypersmotic, hyposmotic.

495
Q

What is hypersmotic

A

if one solution hasa greater concentration of solute particles, and therefore a greater osmotic pressure than another solution.

496
Q

What is crenation

A

the cell shrinks

497
Q

What does lysis mean

A

a cell swells

498
Q

What does osmotic refer to

A

the concentration of solutions

499
Q

What does tonic refer to

A

the tendency of cells t swell or shrink

500
Q

What is mediated transport

A

membrane transport process by which membran transport proteins mediate, or assist, the movement of large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules or ions across the plasma membrane.

501
Q

What is facilitated diffusion

A

mediated transport process that moves substances into or out of cells from a higher to a lower concentration.

502
Q

What proteins carry out facilitated diffusion

A

carrier and channel

503
Q

What is active transport

A

a mediated transport process that requires energy provided by ATP

504
Q

What is secondary active transport

A

the active transport of an ion, establishing a concentration gradient, with a higher concentration of the ions outside the cell.

505
Q

What is vesicular transport

A

the movement of larger volumes of substances across teh plasma membrane through the formation or release of vesicles, membrane bound sacs, in cytoplasm.

506
Q

What are the two types of vesicular transport

A

endocytosis and exocytosis

507
Q

What is endocytosis

A

occurs when material moves trhough the plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm by the formation of a vesicle.

508
Q

What are the two types of endocytosis

A

phagocytosis

pinocytosis

509
Q

What are phagocytosis importnat for

A

eliminating harmful substances from the body

510
Q

pinocytosis

A

cell drinking

contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather than particles.

511
Q

What is hypercholesterolemia

A

a common genetic disorder characterized by the reduction in or absence of low density lipoprotein receptor on cell surfaces, which interferes with the receptor mediated endocytosis of LDL cholesterol.

512
Q

What are two examples of exocytosis

A

the secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas and secretion of mucus by the salivary glands

513
Q

What is cytoplasm

A

the cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane, is about half cytosol and half organelles.

514
Q

What is the cytosol

A

the fluid portion of the cytoplasm

515
Q

What is the cytoskeleton

A

supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in place

516
Q

The cytoskeleton consists of what three groups of proteins

A

microtubules, actin filaments, intermediate filaments.

517
Q

What are microtubules

A

hollow tubes composed primarily of protein units called tubulin.

518
Q

What are microtubules involved in

A

cell division and in transport of intracellular materials.

519
Q

What are actin filaments

A

are small fibrils, about 8nm in diameter that form bundles, sheets, or networks in cytoplasm.

520
Q

What are intermediate filaments

A

protein fibers that provide mechanical strength to cells

521
Q

What are cytoplasmic inclusions

A

aggregates of chemicals either produced or taken in by the cell

522
Q

What are lipochromes?

A

pigments that increase in amount with age.

523
Q

What are organelles

A

structures within cells that are specialized for particular functions.

524
Q

What is the largest organelle of the cell

525
Q

What are the number of cytoplasmic organelles related to

A

specific structure and function of cell

526
Q

What is the nucleus

A

a large membrane bound structure located near the center of the cell.

527
Q

What is the nuclear envelope

A

two membranes separated by a space

528
Q

What are nuclear pores

A

pore like openings in the nuclear envelope where the inner and outer membranes fuse. molecules move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through these openings

529
Q

What are chromosomes

A

discrete structures that contain DNA and associated proteins.

530
Q

What is chromatin

A

chromospmes dispersed throughout the nucleus as delicate filaments

531
Q

What does DNA determine

A

the structural and functional characteristis of the cell by specifying the structure of proteins.

532
Q

What are the types of RNA molecules

A

messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA>

533
Q

What is the nucleolus

A

a dense region within the nucleus

534
Q

What do free ribosomes do?

A

synthesize proteins used inside the cell

535
Q

What does the endoplasmic reticulum consist of

A

broad, flattened, interconnecting sacs and tubules.

536
Q

What is the cisternae

A

the interior spaces of those sacs and tubules and isolated from the rest of the cytoplasm

537
Q

What is detoxification?

A

the processes by which enzymes act on chemicals and drugs to change their structure and reduce their toxicity

538
Q

What is autophagy

A

lysosomes digest the organelles of the cell that are no longer functional.

539
Q

What are peroxisomes

A

membrane bound vesicles that are smaller than lysosomes.

540
Q

What are proteasomes

A

large protein complexes containing enzymes that break down and recycle other proteins within the cell.

541
Q

What is the matrix

A

the material located inside the inner membrane

542
Q

What is Tay-Sachs disease?

A

a rare genetic disorder caused by the inability of lysosomal enzymes to break down gangliosides.

543
Q

Where is mitochondria more numerous

A

in areas where ATP is used.

544
Q

What is the centrosome

A

a specialized zone of cytoplasm close of the nucleus

545
Q

What is inside of the centrosome

A

two centrioles

546
Q

What is cilia

A

structures that project from teh surface of cells and are capable of movement.

547
Q

Where is cilia numerous

A

on surface cells that line the respitory tract and the female reproductive tract.

548
Q

What are microvilli

A

cylindrically shaped extensions of the plasma membrane.

549
Q

Where is microvilli found

A

on the cells of intestine, kidney, and other ares where absorption is an important function.

550
Q

What is heredity

A

the transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring

551
Q

What is each gene

A

a segment of DNA molecule that specifies the structure of an RNA molecule.

552
Q

What is gene expression

A

the production of RNA and or proteins from the infrotmation stored in DNA

553
Q

What do transfer RNA do

A

carry the amino acids to the ribosomes.

554
Q

What is transcription

A

making a copy of a small part of the stored information in DNA

555
Q

What is translation

A

converting that copied information into a protein.

556
Q

When does transcription occur

A

when a section of a DNA molecule unwinds and its complementary strands seperate.

557
Q

What is RNA polymerase

A

an enzyme that synthesizes the complementary RNA molecule from DNA.

558
Q

What does a promoter signal

A

the begining of the gene and site for initial RNA polymerase binding.

559
Q

What does the attachment of RNA polymerase cause

A

a portion of the DNA molecule to unwind, exposing the DNA nucleotide sequence fro that region of the template strand.

560
Q

What is the region between the promoter and termination of transcription called

561
Q

What are exons

A

regions of the mRNA that do code for proteins

562
Q

what is a pre-mRNA

A

an mRNA that contains introns

563
Q

What two things are added to the ends of a mRNA

A

7methyguanosine cap and poly-a tail

564
Q

What happens in alternative splicing

A

various combination of exons are incorporated into mRNA. allows for a single gene to produce more than one specific protein.

565
Q

What is genetic code

A

the information contained in mRNA and it relates the nucleotide sequence of mRNA to the amino acid sequence of a protein.

566
Q

What is codon

A

mRNA organized into three nucleotide sequences.

567
Q

What is the start codon

568
Q

What are end codons

A

UAA, UGA< UAG

569
Q

What does translation require

A

ribosomes and tRNA

570
Q

What is the function of tRNA

A

to match a specific amino acid to a specific codon of mRNA

571
Q

What is an anticodon

A

three nucleotides that are complementary to a particular codon of mRNA

572
Q

What is a polyribosome

A

a cluster of ribosoes attached to the same mRNA

573
Q

What are the two stages of the cell cycle

A

interphase and cell division

574
Q

What stages happen during cell division

A

mitosis, division of nucleus, cytokinesis, division of cytoplasm

575
Q

What happens in interphase

A

the cell prepares to divide

576
Q

What is DNA replication

A

the process in which the two strands of a DNA molecule seperate and each serves as the template for making complementary new strands of nucleotides.

577
Q

What is a diploid number

A

each cell contains a specific number of chromosomes.

578
Q

What is a haploid number

A

half the diploid number

579
Q

What is mitosis

A

the division of a cells nucleus into two new nuclei, each containing the same amount and type of DNA as original nucleus.

580
Q

What is mitotic chromosomes

A

densely coiled chromatin.

581
Q

What is a chromatid

A

a copy of a chromososme

582
Q

What is kinetochore

A

a protein structure that binds the centromere and provides a point of attachment for microtubules that will seperate and move the chromatids during mitosis

583
Q

What happens in prophase

A

the chromatin condenses to form mitotic chromosomes

584
Q

What happens in metaphase

A

the chromosomes align near the center of the cell

585
Q

What happens in anaphase

A

the chromatids seperate.

586
Q

What happens in telophase

A

nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes to form two seperate nuclei

587
Q

What is cytokinesis

A

the division of the cells cytoplasm to produce two new cells.

588
Q

What is the cleavage furrow

A

indentation of the plasma membrane that forms midway between the centroiles.

589
Q

When is cytokinesis complete

A

when the membranes of the halves seperate at the cleavage furrow to form two seperate cells.

590
Q

What is Apoptosis

A

is a normal process by which cell number within various tissues adjust and controled

591
Q

What is one of the major sources of DNA damage

A

free radicals- atoms with an unparied electron.

A+P (8 decks)

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