A+P lecture notes 1-3 Flashcards
anatomy
scientific discipline that investigates the bodys structure
physiology
scientific investigation of the processes or function of living things.
what are the types of anatomy
gross
- regional
- systemic
- surface
microscopic
cytology
histology
regional
studied area by area
systemic
studied system by system
surface
external form and relation to deeper structures as xray in anatomic imaging
cytology
study of cell anatomy
histology
study of tissues
What are the types of Physiology
cell
neurophysiology
cardiovascular
What are the two subjects that encompass both anatomy and physiology
pathology
exercise physiology
pathology
structural and functiona changes caused by disease
exercise physiology
changes in structure and function caused by exercise.
What are the structural and functional organizations
chemical
cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
chemical level of organization
interaction of atoms/molecules
cell level of organization
functional unit of life
tissue level of organization
group of similar cells and surronding materials
organ level of organization
one or more tissues functioning together
organ system level
group of organs functioning together
organization
condition in which there are specific relationships and functions
metabolism
all chemical reactions of the body
responsiveness
ability to sense changes and adjust
growth
increase in size and or number of cells
What are the 6 characteristics of an organism
organization
metabolism
responsiveness
growth
development
morphogenesis
reproduction
development
changes in an organism over time
differentiation
change from general to specific
morphogenesis
change in shape of tissues, organs
reproduction
new cells or new organisms
Homeostasis
the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
set point
the ideal normal value of a variable
What are the two types of feedback systems
negative and positive
receptor
monitors the value of some variable
control center
establishes the set point
effector
can change the value of the variable
What is negetive feedback
any deviation from the set point is made smaller
What is positive feedback
when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater.
anatomical position
body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward
supine
lying face up
prone
lying face down
superior
toward the head vs inferior (away from the head)
proxmal vs distil
used to describe linear structures
superficial vs deep
relative to the surface of the body
What are the 4 body plans
median and sagittal
frontal or coronal
transverse
oblique
frontal or coronal
divides body into anterior and posterior sections
transverse/cross
divides body into superior and inferior sections
oblique
other than a right angle
What are the planes of section through an organ
longitudinal
cross/transverse
oblique
What are the three serous membranes
pericardium- heart
pleura- lungs
peritoneum- abdominopelvic cavity
radiography
shawdowy negtive of internal body structures
ultrasound
computer analyzed sound waves bounced off a structure
computed tomography
computed analyzed composite of radiograph- shows slices of body
digital subtraction angiography
comparision of radiographs with and without dye
magnetic resonance imaging
uses magnetism and radio waves to look for varying alignments of protons in soft tissues
positrom emission tomography
uses radioactively glucose -calculates metabolic activity of cells.
element
the simplest type of matter having unique chemical properties
What is a element
atoms of one kind
atom
the smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristics of the element.
atoms
composed of subatomic particles
neutrons
no charge
protons
one positive charge
electrons
one negative charge
nucleus
formed by protons and neutrons
What are the two types of chemical bonding?
ionic, covalent
ionic bonding
atoms exchange electrons
covalent bonding
two or more atoms share electron pairs
ion
an atom loses or gains electrons and becomes charged
cation
positive charged ion
anion
negatively charged atom
molecules
two or more atoms chemically combine. same or different atoms
electrolytes
solutions from dissociation of cations and anions in water.
nonelectrolytes
solutions made by molecules that dissolve in water.
energy
the capacity to do work
potential energy
energy stored in chemical bonds. energy that could do work if it were released
What does breaking chemical bonds release?
energy
catalysts
substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being permanently changed or depleted.
enzymes
a protein catalyst that increase the rate of chemical reactions
inorganic chemistry
substances that do not contain carbon.
solution
mixture of liquids, gases, or solids that are uniformly distributed and chemically combined
solvent
that which dissolves the solute
solute
that which dissolves in the solvent
acid
a proton donor
base
a proton acceptor
acidic
below pH 7. as acidity increases, the concentration of hydrogen ions increases.
oxygen
required in the final step to extract energy from food
carbon dioxide
produced during breakdown of organic compounds.
organic chemistry
study of carbon containing substances
four major groups needed for living things
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
carbohydrates
composed of C, H, O.
energy sources and structure
lipids
mostly C,H,O
relatively insoluble in water
protection, insulation, physiological regulation, component of cell membranes
proteins
C,H,O, nitrogen
regulate processes, aid transport, protection, muscle contraction
nucleic acid
C,H,O, nitrogen, phosphorus
disaccharides
two simple sugars bound together
polysaccharides
storage molecules
many monosaccharides
triglycerides
composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
phospholipids
polar one end. nonpolar at other.
steroids
carbon atoms arranged in four rings
amino acids
building blocks of proteins
protein structure
a chain of different amino acids
nucleotides
composed of a five carbon sugar, nitrogen, and phosphate.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid
genetic material of cells copied from one generation to next.
composed of two strands of nucleotides
RNA: ribonucleic acid
similar to a single stand of DNA
responsible for interpreting the code within DNA into proteins.
ATP
energy currency of the body
provides energy for chemical reactions and drive cell processes or muscle contraction
all energy requiring chemical reactiosn stop when there is inadaquate ATP
What is the basic structure of the cell
plasma membrane
cytoplasm
nucleus
What is the functions of the cell
- cell metabolism and energy use
- synthesis of molecules
3, communication
- reproduction and inheritance.
What does the plasma membrane do?
separates inter-cellular from extracellular.
glycolipids
carbohydrates + lipids
glycoproteins
carbohydrates+ proteins
membrane lipids
phospholipids and cholesterol
cholesterol
more cholesterol= a less fluid membrane
membrane proteins
- intergral or intrinsic (extend deeply into membrane, usually from one side to other. )
- peripheral or extrinsic (extrinsic proteins are attached to either the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer.)
marker molecules
cells identify each other
immunity
intercellular communication
recognition of oocyte by sperm cell.
what makes up glycolipids
carbohydrates +lipids
what makes up glycoproteins
carbohydrates + proteins
What are the two types attachment proteins
cadherins- cells to cells
integrins- integral proteins that attach to extracellular molecule
What are the three transport proteins
channel
carrier
ATP powered pumps
Channel Proteins
nongated ion channels - always open
gated ion channels- open/closed by stimuli
non gated ion channels
plasma membrane permeable to a few ions when the plasma membrane is at rest
ligand gated ion channel
opes in response to a small molecule binding to proteins or glycoproteins
voltage gated ion channel
opens or closes in response to a change in charge across plasma membrane.
carrier proteins
integral proteins - move ions from one side of membrane to other.
What are the three forms of carrier proteins
one specific ion or molecule across the plasma membrane
symporters- move two different ions or molecules in same direction across the plasma
antiporters- move two different ions or molecules in opposite directions across plasma
What are the two forms of channel proteins
nongated ion channels
gated ion channels
What are the two parts of ATP powered transport
requires ATP
rate of transport depends on concentration ATP
enzymes
some act to catalyze reactiosn at outer/inner surface of plasma membrane
receptor proteins
can act as an intercellural communication system
chemical signals attach only to cells with a specific receptor.
what are the four kinds of movement trough plasma membrane
diffusion
osmosis
filtration
mediated transport
what are the types of mediated transport
facilitated diffusion
active
secondary active
What is diffusion
movement of solutes in solution
concentration
difference between two points
viscosity
how easily a liquid flows
temp
affects movement of particles
osmosis
diffusion of water across a selective permeable membrane. water moves from area of low concentration of solute area of high concentration of solute.
osmotic pressure
force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis.
comparative terms that describe osmotic pressure
isosmotic
hyperesmotic
hyposmotic
isosmotic
solutions with same concentration of solute particles
hyperosmotic
solution with a greater concentration of solute
hyposmotic
solution with a lesser concentration of solute
isotonic solution
cell neither shrinks nor swells
hypertonic
cell shrinks
hypotonic
cell swells
filtration
strainer
depends on pressure on either side
moes from sde of greater pressure to lower
many essential molecules like amino acids and glucose cannot enter the cell by diffusion.
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characteristics of mediated transport
specificity- a single type of molecule
competition- among molecules of similar shape
saturation- rate of transport limited by number of carrier proteins
facilitated diffusion
by a carrier or channel protein
moves large water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across a membrane.
Active transport
requires ATP
rate depends on number of ATP powered pumps and the availibilty of adequate ATP
symport
if two different ions or molecules move in the same direction
antiport
if two different ions or molecules move in opposite direction.
secondary active transport
ions or molecules move in same or different direction.
endocytosis
the uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the formation of a vesicle
types of endocytosis
phagocytosis- cell eating
pinocytosis- cell drinking
receptor mediated- eating and drinking
pinocytosis
small vesicles form with dissolved molecules inside liquids rather than particles
exocytosis
secretions expelled from cell
cytoplasm
cellular material outside nucleus but inside plasma membrane
What are the 4 parts of the cytoplasm
cytosol
cytoskeleton
cytoplasmic inclusions
organelles
cytosol (colloid)
fluid portion of the cytoplasm
colloid
viscous solution containing dissolved ions and molecules and suspended molecules
what are the functions of the cytoskeleton
supports the cell
holds necleus and organelles in place
responsible for movement of cell orgenelles
three parts of the cytoskeleton
microtubules
intermediate filaments
microfilaments
microtubules
internal scaffold, role in transport inside cell, cell division.
intermediate filaments
provides mechanical strength to the cell
microfilaments
structure, support fro microvilli, defines shape of cell
cytoplasmic inclusions
aggregates of chemicals that are produced or taken in by the cell
organelles
small specilized structures. most have membranes which seperate the interior of organelles from the cytoplasm
chromosome
DNA + proteins. regulate DNA function
chromatids
chromatin condenses into pairs
centromere
joins each pair of chromatids
what are the types of ribosomes
free floating
attached
What are the types of endoplasmic reticulum
rough- attached ribosomes
smooth- no attached ribosomes
cisternae
interior spaces isolated from rest of cytoplasm
gogli apparatus
modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids produced by the RER and SER for secretion or internal use.
peroxisomes
contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and amino acids
hydrogen peroxide is by product of breakdown
catalase that breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
cells active in detoxification
mitochondria
power house of the cell- provides energy for the cell
what are the membranes of mitochondria
cristae
matrix
when does mitochondria increase
when cell energy requirements increase
what are mitochondrial diseases result from?
mutations on the mitochondrial genes
centrosome
specialized zone of cytoplasm near the nuceus that is responsible for microtubule formation
what is centrosomes function
scaffold to cytoplasm
involved in determining cell shape and movement
cilia
appendages projecting from cell surfaces
cilia purpose
moves material over cell structure
flagella
similar to cilia but longer
one per cell
move cell itself
microvilli
extension of plasma membrane
gene
functional unit of heredity
gene responsible for the transmission of the genetic traits from parents to offspring
segment of DNA molecule that specifies the structure of a protein or RNA molecule
Types of genes
structural- template for mRNA
regulatory- control which structural genes are transcribed in a given tissue
transcription
DNA is used to form mRNA
translation
synthesis of a protein at the ribosomes using mRNA, tRNA and rRNA
what does the rate of protein synthesis vary upon
chemical signals
interphase
phase between cell division
mitosis
mother cell with two daughter cells
cytokinesis
the division of the cell’s cytoplasm
What are the steps of replication of DNA
dna strands seperate
old strands become templates
DNA ploymerase adds new nucleotides to end of growing strands
what are the steps of mitosis
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
cytokinesis
cytoplasmic division
metaphase
chromosomes are aligned at the center of the cell
anaphase
spindle fibers seperate the chromatids
telophase
chromosomes decondense
