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Lecture Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

5 Characteristics of life

A

Life requires Energy
Life Evolves
Life is organized
Life grows, develops, and reproduces
Life maintains constancy

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2
Q

Potential energy

A

the capacity to do work because of somethings location and structure
“Stored Energy”
Remember, energy is stored in bonds.
Ex: fats

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3
Q

Kinetic energy

A

the energy of motion.
Energy being used to do work. Thermal energy is associated with kinetic
“Released energy”

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4
Q

Thermal Energy

A

heat energy (accompanies kinetic energy)

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5
Q

Why is thermal energy always associated with kinetic energy

A

energy transfers are inefficient and most energy released is in the form of heat.
10% rule

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6
Q

What is the 10% rule

A

we can only utilize 10% of our energy. 90% is lost in the form of heat

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7
Q

The energy stored in the sugar is released through ___________

A

The energy stored in the sugar is released through CELLULAR RESPIRATION

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8
Q

True or False
All chemical reactions lose energy in the form of heat regardless of the energy being used to store or release energy in the process

A

True.
making or breaking bonds will result in heat/energy loss

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9
Q

First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

A

First: energy can be neither created nor destroyed. but can be converted from one form to another

Second: Entropy. Disorder of the universe is always increasing

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10
Q

Define entropy

A

the amount of disorder in a system. This explains diffusion: energy flows from high to low concentrations to increase the disorder in the system

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11
Q

Autotrophs

A

producers. Absorb the suns energy and converts it to chemical energy stored in sugars via photosynthesis
Ex: plants, algae, some bacteria

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12
Q

Heterotrophs

A

consumers. Obtain food by eating other living organisms. Cellular respiration to release chemical energy stored in sugars.
Ex: animals, fungi, some protists

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13
Q

Do autotrophs or Heterotrophs do cellular respiration?

A

Both do it.

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14
Q
A

Chloroplast

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15
Q

What is the reaction for photosynthesis? what is the reaction for cellular respiration?

A

Photosynthesis turns water and CO2 into sugar, O2 and water.
Cellular respiration is the reverse

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16
Q

Where does photosynthesis occur?

A

In the chloroplast of stems and leaves
CO2 enters through the stromata. H2O enters through the roots.

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17
Q

If only 1% of water absorbed by plants is used in photosynthesis, where does the rest go?

A

It is quickly used for turgor pressure and leaves the plant.

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18
Q

What is the primary pigment in chloroplasts?
In Chromoplasts?

A

Chloroplasts have chlorophyll that reflects green.
Chromoplasts have carotenoids that reflect red, yellow, and orange.

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19
Q

What are pigments and where are they found?

A

Light absorbing molecules. Found in the thylakoid membranes

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20
Q

Chromoplasts absorb light energy and shuttle it to ________

A

Chromoplasts absorb light energy and shuttle it to the chlorophyll.

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21
Q

What happens in the light reaction stage, and where does it happen?

A

In the thylakoid membrane. The energy absorbed by the pigments is used to split water molecules into separate H+ and O2. This allows for NADP+ to be an electron shuttle NADPH.
This breaking of bonds released energy and the energy shuttle is ADP + P =ATP

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22
Q

What links light reactions to the calvin cycle?

A

NADPH and ATP

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23
Q

Where does the light reaction occur?

A

In the thylakoids

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24
Q

Describe the light reaction in simple terms

A

the light reactions capture the energy in sunlight and store it within high energy molecules of ATP and high electron shuttles of NADPH

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25
Q

Where does the Calvin Cycle happen? What happens during this cycle

A

In the stroma. CO2 from the air is brought into the stroma. The NADPH and ATP from the light reaction are used and broken down to make Glucose and Cellulose. NADP+ and ADT get sent back to the light reaction to collect more H+

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26
Q

What are the sugars made from the Calvin Cycle and where do they get used?

A

Glucose- stored as starch
Cellulose- link together to form cell wall

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27
Q

What does the sugar from cellular respiration get used for?

A

to produce ATP in the mitochondria

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28
Q

________ is used for short term energy
_______ is used for long term energy
_______ used to provide structural support

A

Glucose is used for short term energy
Starch is used for long term energy (composed of glucose)
Cellulose provides structural support

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29
Q

Where does cellular respiration occur?

A

Usually in the mitochondria, but some prokaryotic can do it in their plasma membrane

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30
Q

Purposes of cellular respiration

A

Oxygen is used to harvest energy stored in sugar.
Enzymes produce ATP which drives all reactions

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31
Q

What are the three stages of Cellular Respiration and where does each take place

A

Glycolysis (cytoplasm)
Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle (mitochondrial matrix)
Electron Transport Chain (inner membrane of mito)

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32
Q

What happens in Glycolysis

A

in the cytoplasm, glycoloysis splits one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid (C3H4O3) This leaves 2 molecules of ATP for energy shuttle and NADH for electron shuttle

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33
Q

What happens in the Citric Acid/ Krebs Cycle?

A

In the Mitochondrial matrix, the pyruvic acid is broken down into acetic acid to break down into 2 ATP and several electron shuttles (NADH and FADH)
CO2 is a byproduct and released from the cell

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34
Q

What happens in the ETC

A

ETC takes place in Membrane of Mitochondria.
The energy electrons move through the chain , producing 28 molecules of ATP.
Electrons bind with O@ to form H2O as a byproduct

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35
Q

What are the complexes for in the mitochondria membrane?

A

Used to transport electron shuttles and cleave off the electrons. Complex 1 separates NADH, Complex 2 separates FADH2, Complexes 3 and 4 increase the energy level of the electrons to get 28 ATP

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36
Q

How do we safely get rid of the surplus of H+ obtained from the ETC?

A

Inhale O2 which bonds with the H+ to produce H2O that we can use or release.

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37
Q

Define ATP

A

a high energy compound used to provide energy to power many vital functions

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38
Q

The forming of ATP from ADP is ______________
The forming of ADP from ATP is _____________

A

The forming of ATP from ADP is ENDERGONIC
The forming of ADP from ATP is EXERGONIC

ADP + P = ATP
adding a bond to ATP adds energy, so ENdergonic. The reverse would be EXergonic

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39
Q

What are Enzymes

A

Protein
Catalysts that can make reactions occur billions times faster.
The enzyme can be used many times over as it is not altered in the reaction

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40
Q

Enzymes chemically recognize, bind, and alter ________ reactants

A

Specific

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41
Q

True or False: Enzymes can be used to bind or cleave

A

True

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42
Q

What is activation energy

A

The amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur

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43
Q

What can happen to an enzyme if the temperature, pH or Salt concentration is altered?

A

It can denature and not be functional.
Remember, most enzymes are proteins and proteins depend on shape. If shape is changed, function is lost

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44
Q

What is the enzyme predominantly found in the liver that neutralizes H2O2

A

Catalase

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45
Q

What is cellular metabolism

A

All the controlled, enzyme-mediated chemical reactions by which cells acquire and use energy as they synthesize, store, degrade, and eliminate substances.

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46
Q

What is considered the molecule of life

A

DNA

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47
Q

What are nucleic acids

A

DNA and RNA
Molecules that store genetic information and direct activities for cellular growth and reproduction

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48
Q

What determines your overall physical appearance, rate of cellular activity and efficiency of organ systems

A

Nucleic acids

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49
Q

What is the genetic material in the nucleus of a cell that stores information needed for the development of a complete living system

A

DNA

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50
Q

What is a gene

A

A section of DNA that contains the information to make a particular protein

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51
Q

RNA _______ the genetic information in DNA and carries that information to the ________.

A

RNA TRANSLATES the genetic information in DNA and carries that information to the RIBOSOMES where protein synthesis takes place

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52
Q

What are the components of a nucleotide

A

Pentose sugar (OH or H)
Nitrogenous base (A,C,G,T,U)
Phosphate group

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53
Q

What attaches to each of the carbons on a pentose sugar

A

1’ site for nitrogenous base
2’ determines if it is ribose or deoxyribose
3’ site for next nucleotide
4’ site for 5’
5’ site for the phosphate group

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54
Q

Which bases are pyrimidines and which are purines?

A

CUT the PY
PUR as AG

Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine are Pyrimidines (single ring)
Adenine and Guanine are Purines (two linked rings)

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55
Q

What will each base always attach to? How many bonds do each form?

A

Pyrimidines always bond to purines.
C-G triple bonds
A-U double bonds (RNA)
A-T double bonds (DNA)

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56
Q

_______ consist of polymers of many nucleotides

A

Nucleic acids consist of polymers of many nucleotides

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57
Q

What is the bond between the sugars in adjacent nucleotides

A

phosphodiester bond

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58
Q

How do two nucleotides attach together?

A

The 3’ OH group of the sugar bonds to the phosphate group in the 5’ of the next nucleotide. This is a condensation reaction, so H2O is expelled

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59
Q

What is the free end and what is the terminal end?

A

Free end is 3’
Terminal end is 5’

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60
Q

What does it mean that DNA is comlimentary?

A

DNA has strands that run in opposite directions and match each other exactly
3’-5’ strand is complimentary to the 5’-3’ strand

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61
Q

What direction does a DNA strand get read?

A

always 3’ to 5’

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62
Q

What is meant by semiconservative replication?

A

Every DNA strand is half the “old” strand and half a “new” strand when being replicated

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63
Q

The two new DNA strands that form are _______ of the original DNA

A

Exact copies

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64
Q

Helixase

A

Breaks apart the original DNA strand to prep for replication

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65
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

Reads the parent strand in the 3’-5’ direction and attaches the complimentary strand.
Told what do to by Primase

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66
Q

Okazaki Fragments

A

Builds the new strand in the 5’-3’ direction in fragments. Primers allow Okazaki fragments to form and ligase will remove primers to fill in gaps

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67
Q

List some DNA RNA differences

A

DNA- uses thymine, double stranded, large, Deoxy sugar
RNA- uses uracil, single stranded, small since it is made from a section (gene) of DNA, ribose sugar

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68
Q

Central Dogma of Life

A

DNA to RNA to Protein

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69
Q

RNA is involved with _________ genetic information.
The three types of RNA are ____,_____,_____

A

transmitting

Messenger- mRNA
Ribosomal- rRNA
Transfer-tRNA

70
Q

What does mRNA do

A

Linear sequence that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm for synthesis.

Codes for the order of amino acids

71
Q

What does rRNA do

A

most abundant type because it is the main component of Ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs
rRNA and proteins fold together to make up the ribosome.

72
Q

What does tRNA do

A

Smallest of RNA molecules.
Delivers amino acids to the ribosome in order specified by tRNA.

73
Q

How many types of tRNA are there?

A

20, because each tRNA is coded for a specific amino acid, which there are 20 of as well

74
Q

What are the steps to reading and replicating DNA

A

Transcription- converts a gene (DNA) to RNA
and
Translation- uses RNA to form a protein

75
Q

_________ takes place in the nucleus and
__________ takes place in a ribosome in the cytoplasm

A

Transcription takes place in the nucleus and
Translation takes place in a ribosome in the cytoplasm

76
Q

All types of RNA are made during ______

A

Transcription

77
Q

Translation will only occur if what type of RNA is made?

A

mRNA

78
Q

What are the three steps that occur in both transcription and translation

A

Initiation
Elongation
Termination

79
Q

Describe Initiation, Elongation and Termination for TRANSCRIPTION

A

Initiation- Helicase unwinds DNA, RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region
Elongation- RNA polymerase moves 3’-5’ forming bonds to synthesize RNA in 5’-3’
Termination- The stop signal. RNA polymerase is told to stop. RNA separates (whatever type was created) DNA returns to double helix form

80
Q

After transcription, what happens to tRNA

A

tRNA is folded into its shape and moves into the cytoplasm to carry amino acids for protein synthesis

81
Q

After transcription, what happens to rRNA

A

rRNA moves into the nucleolus to be formed into a ribosome, which moves to cytoplasm for protein synthesis

82
Q

After transcription, what happens to mRNA

A

process continues with translation; mRNA receives 5’ cap and poly A tail. Exons and Introns are sorted

83
Q

What are exons and introns

A

Exons are protein-coding base sequences
Introns are noncoding sequences

84
Q

What is the role of each RNA type in translation

A

mRNA-specifies the order of amino acids in the form of codons
rRNA- structural component of ribosomes forming peptide bonds between amino acids
tRNA-takes amino acid to the ribosome to be attached to a polypeptide chain

85
Q

What happens in the Initiation stage of translation.

A

Initiator Complex is formed : mRNA strand attaches to the small subunit of ribosome
tRNA binds to the start codon
Large ribosome subunit attaches

86
Q

What happens in the Elongation stage of translation

A

Ribosome forms peptide bonds between amino acids to form polypeptide chains.

87
Q

What happens in the Termination stage of translation

A

When ribosome reads a stop codon the RNA and new polypeptide chain detach. ribosomal subunits part.

88
Q

Where does the released polypeptide chain go after termination of translation?

A

to the round ER to be shaped into a functional protein

89
Q

Where does the mRNA go after termination of translation

A

to a lysosome to get broken down and reused

90
Q

What are examples of base pair substitution mutations

A

Missense- only affects one amino acid in the chain
Nonsense- prematurely signals the cell to stop, leading to a short protein.
Ex: sickle cell anemia

91
Q

What are examples of frameshift mutations

A

Deletion-one or more bases are lost
Ex: Williams syndrome
Insertion- one or more bases are added Ex: Huntington’s disease

92
Q

How many chromosomes are found in a human cell?

A

46 Chromosomes

93
Q

Chromatin vs Chromosome

A

Chromatin is the loosely coiled DNA. It is in this form for replication
Chromosomes are tightly coiled around a histone for storage and transport.

94
Q

Centromere

A

The region of the chromosome that holds together two sister chromatids

95
Q

Kinetochore

A

protein complex attached to the centromere that provides an attachment site on the chromosomes for the microtubules to attach without damaging the DNA

96
Q

What are spindle fibers made of ?

A

microtubules. They are called spindle fibers when used for cell division

97
Q

Nucleosome

A

DNA wrapped around a histone

98
Q

What marks the start and end of the cell cycle

A

When a new daughter cell forms by cell division.. That cell must now go through the cycle to replicate and divide.
Start- new daughter cell is formed
End- cell divides

99
Q

What is the longest phase of the cell cycle? What happens in this phase

A

Interphase. Not dividing, just growing in size. Cell continues normal function

100
Q

Mitosis divides the ______ and Cytokinesis divides the ________

A

Mitosis divides the NUCLEUS and Cytokinesis divides the CYTOPLASM

101
Q

What are the phases of Interphase

A

G1, S, G2
G1- maturation, makes proteins and lipids, growing in size
S- DNA replication happens here- Chromatin duplicates the DNA into 2 strands to be separated
G2- Produce microtubules and prep for split

102
Q

What are the phases of Mitosis in order?

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

103
Q

What type of cells perform Mitosis?

A

Somatic Cells- All cells do mitosis except sex cells like ovary and testes. They do meiosis

104
Q

Mitosis starts with ______cells and ends with ____ cells

A

Starts with diploid cells and ends with diploid cells.

105
Q

What is diploid vs haploid

A
106
Q

During what phase of the cell cycle does DNA Polymerase aid in replicating the DNA?

A

Interphase

107
Q

What happens during Prophase

A

Early Prophase- Duplicated chromatin strands condense to chromosomes, nuclear envelopes starts to break down
Late Prophase- Kinetochores attach to duplicated chromosomes, 1 Centriole pair moves to the opposite pole

108
Q

What happens during Metaphase

A

Early Metaphase- Spindles form and attach to the kinetochores, chromosomes are completely condensed.
Late Metaphase- Duplicated chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate

109
Q

What happens during Anaphase

A

Cell is elongated to prepare for division. Spindle fibers are pushing at poles while fibers in the center begin to disintegrate. Sister chromatids are pulled apart.

110
Q

What happens during Telophase

A

Nuclear envelope forms around each set of unduplicated chromosomes. Chromosomes decondense.

111
Q

What happens during Cytokinesis

A

The cell is divided into two daughter cells either by contractile ring (animal) or cell plate formation (plant)

112
Q

Why do plants divide by cell plate formation instead of contractile ring mechanism like animal cells?

A

Because of the cell wall. The Cell plate builds the cell wall in order to divide the two.

113
Q

What is cleavage Furrow

A

It is an indentation that forms in animal cells that allow for cytokinesis to occur.

114
Q

Define Reproduction

A

The transmission of genetic material to the next generation and the next

115
Q

What are the male and female gametes and gonads?

A

Gametes are sperm and egg
Gonads are testes and ovary

116
Q

Asexual vs Sexual reproduction

A

Asexual is mitosis- single parent cell will replicate exactly. Done by somatic cells
Sexual is meiosis- two parent cells will replicate with variation.

117
Q

Sexual reproduction is the merging of two ______ gametes.

A

merging of two HAPLOID gametes

118
Q

Genes

A

A sequence of chromosomal DNA

119
Q

Allele

A

unique molecular forms of the same gene -reason for genetic variation

120
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

Two chromosomes in a matching pair that carry genes controlling the same inherited characteristics.

121
Q

For sexual cells reproducing with meiosis, when does cytokinesis occur?

A

After meiosis 1 and again after meiosis 2

122
Q

Gametes are _______ sperm and egg

A

Gametes are HAPLOID sperm and egg

123
Q

Meiosis 1 starts with diploid and ends with ____

A

Haploid

124
Q

Mitosis is most similar to meiosis _

A

Mitosis is most similar to meiosis 2

125
Q

Mitosis :
Where, When, What, How, Produces

A

Where: Somatic Cells
When: Throughout lifetime
What: One Diploid cell will produce 2 diploid cells
How: One division
Produces: Genetically Identical diploid cells

126
Q

Mieosis:
Where, When, What, How, Produces

A

Where: Gonads
When: Varies
What: One Diploid cell produces 4 gametes
How: Two divisions
Produces: Genetically unique haploid gametes

127
Q

What are the 4 mechanisms that allow for genetic diversity?

A

Crossover
Allelic Variation
Random Alignment
Random Fertilization

128
Q

What phase allows for crossover?
What phase allows for random alignment

A

Crossover happens in prophase 1- happens as loose chromatin
Random alignment happens in Metaphase 1

129
Q

What is the formation of gametes called generically, for sperm, and for egg?

A

Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis

130
Q

What does Meiosis do to the chromosome number?

A

Cuts it in half so we don’t double the number during replication.

131
Q

Gametes are ______ while zygote is _____

A

Gametes are HAPLOID while zygote is DIPLOID

132
Q

What hormone stimulates gamete production?

A

Testosterone for sperm
Estrogen for egg

133
Q

Where do immature sperm cells go to be matured?

A

Epididymis to be matured (produced in seminiferous tubules)

134
Q

In Meiosis, when is the normal number of chromosomes restored?

A

Upon fertilization- haploid gametes fuse to form diploid zygote

135
Q

Define Heredity

A

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next

136
Q

Define Character

A

an inherited feature that varies from one individual to another (ex: flower color and eye color)

137
Q

Define Trait

A

The variations of characters (ex: purple and white flowers and green blue or brown eyes)

138
Q

Define Genetics

A

The study of heredity

139
Q

Gene

A

Sections of DNA that contain information on heritable traits
Each gene has a specific location

140
Q

Allele

A

Unique molecular makeup of a gene
allows for genetic variation

141
Q

Mutation

A

A process that alters a genes molecular structure and its message about a trait and may cause the trait to change

142
Q

Genes code for _________

A

Genes code for genetic traits

143
Q

Alleles code for

A

Alleles code for the specific message of the gene (red, black, blonde hair color)

144
Q

Pure Breeds vs Hybrids

A

Pure breeds are when offspring inherit identical alleles for a trait generation after generation- leads to decreases in genetic variation

Hybrids are a cross between two individuals that are not of the same traits. Inherited nonidentical alleles for the trait. Increased genetic variation

145
Q

______ may have harmful recessive alleles taht lead to genetic disorders while ______ weed out harmful recessive alleles and are healthier

A

Pure breeds
Hybrids

146
Q

Dominant allele vs Recessive allele

A

Dominant- allele that is expressed and masks the effect of another- A
Recessive- allele whose trait is masked- a

147
Q

Homozygous Dominant, Homozygous Recessive, Heterozygous

A

AA
aa
Aa

148
Q

Genotype

A

All the alleles that an individual carries-an individuals genetic makeup from both parents

149
Q

Phenotype

A

Observable traits- looks at expressed alleles

150
Q

What are P, F1, and F2 representing

A

P true breeding parent generation
F1 first generation of crossed breeding
F2 second generation of cross breeding

151
Q

When crossing a P generation with AA with aa , what are the % of each offspring for F1 and F2

A

F1 will all be Aa- 100%
F2 will have 75% expressing A (AA, Aa, and Aa) and 25% aa.

152
Q

Mendel’s Law of Segregation

A

Diploid cells have pairs of genes on pairs of homologous chromosomes . The two genes are separated from each other during meiosis, so they end up on different gametes.

153
Q

Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment

A

As meiosis ends, genes on pairs of homologous chromosomes have been sorted out for distribution into one gamete are another, independently of gene pairs

154
Q

How do you write the genotype ratio

A

Homozygous dominant : heterozygous : homozygous recessive
ex : 1:2:1

155
Q

How do you write the phenotype ratio

A

Expressed trait-
Has a dominant : only recessive
Ex: 3:1

156
Q
A
157
Q
A
158
Q
A

Early Metaphase

159
Q
A

Early Prophase

160
Q
A

Telophase 1

161
Q
A

Metaphase 1

162
Q
A

Cytokinesis of Meiosis

163
Q
A

Metaphase 2

164
Q
A

Anaphase

165
Q
A

Prophase 1

166
Q
A

Mitosis Cytokinesis

167
Q
A

Late Prophase

168
Q
A

Prophase 2

169
Q
A

Telophase

170
Q
A

Late Metaphase

171
Q
A

Anaphase 1

172
Q
A

Anaphase 2

R's Biology 1 (8 decks)

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