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PSYC 315 Personality > Lecture 7 > Flashcards

Lecture 7 Flashcards

1
Q

what is cognition

A

awareness and thinking, as well as specific mental acts (e.g. perceiving, interpreting, remembering, judging)
- focus is on perception, interpretation and conscious goals

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2
Q

what are schemas (and schemata)

A
  • cognitive knowledge structures or mental concepts
  • provide a framework for encoding and integrating new and ambiguous information
  • informs us of what to expect
  • affect how we select, interpret, organize & evaluate experiences
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3
Q

how do schemas affect how we select, interpret, organize & evaluate experiences

A
  • guide attention (details we attend to in the environment)
  • fill in missing details (reconstructive memory)
  • interpret information that verifies our pre-existing beliefs
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4
Q

describe how we have gender schemas

A

we have a schema about what genders look like, that lead us to make assumptions about other people and form expectations about them –> useful and problematic

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5
Q

what is the best way to change/overcome our schemas

A

mindfulness

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6
Q

describe how we have schemas for ourselves

A
  • help us organize our personal experiences and beliefs
  • information that is relevant to the self
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7
Q

describe Kelly’s personal construct theory

A
  • people have a few key constructs (schemas) that they habitually apply in interpreting their world, particularly the social world
  • reality is constructed through bipolar concepts of the world around us (e.g. gay or straight, good or bad)
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8
Q

what is confirmation bias

A
  • people are more likely to actively seek out and agree with ideas that are similar to their own, and ignore others
  • involves negative feelings about difference views and opinions
  • usually unconscious
  • some are more inclined to engage in this
  • over time, leads to belief perseverance (difficulty in changing perspective)
  • smarter people are more likely to engage in this when the nature of the content is political
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9
Q

which traits are associated with a higher tendency for confirmation bias

A
  • low humility/modesty
  • low openness
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10
Q

describe how social media can create echo chambers

A
  • users only see posts from like-minded friends
  • further exacerbated by Facebook algorithms tailoring content to users
  • driven by confirmation bias
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11
Q

what is locus of control

A

a person’s perception of responsibility for life events (can be internal or external) –> contemporary theories see it as a spectrum

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12
Q

internal locus of control

A
  • a generalized expectancy that events are under one’s control and that one is responsible for outcomes in life
  • hard work pays off, high achievement striving
  • associated with more positive outcomes (health, success, etc.)
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13
Q

external locus of control

A
  • a generalized expectancy that events are outside of one’s control
  • blame luck, chance or others for outcomes
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14
Q

attribution theory

A
  • looks at people’s explanatory style
  • there are three factors involved in explaining the causes of events
  • internal/external, stable/unstable, global/specific
  • might apply differently when talking about good or bad events
  • specific evaluation of events
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15
Q

what traits are associated with external/internal locus of control

A
  • high external locus = neuroticism
  • high internal locus = conscientiousness
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16
Q

internal/external explanatory style (attribution theory)

A

do you blame yourself or the world

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17
Q

stable/unstable explanatory style (attribution theory)

A

temporary or consistent over time

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18
Q

global/specific explanatory style (attribution theory)

A

pervasive or applies to this event only

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19
Q

in regards to negative events, which style is associated with depression vs grandiose narcissism

A
  • depression = internal, stable, global
  • grandiose narcissism = external, unstable, specific

–> note this is only for negative events

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20
Q

in regards to negative events, which style is associated with depression vs grandiose narcissism

A
  • depression = internal, stable, global
  • grandiose narcissism = external, unstable, specific
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21
Q

describe what is indicative of a pessimistic explanatory style

A

emphasizes internal, stable and global causes for bad events

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22
Q

describe an optimistic explanatory style

A

emphasizes external, temporary and specific causes for bad events

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23
Q

what are the two types of goal orientation

A
  • mastery goal orientation (learning orientation)
  • performance goal orientation (ego orientation)
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24
Q

mastery goal orientation (learning orientation)

A

individuals seek to develop their competence and improve their abilities

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25
Q

performance goal orientation (ego orientation)

A

individuals seek to demonstrate their competence and/or avoid revealing their incompetence

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26
Q

what type of goal orientation is more likely for a fully functioning person versus someone high in narcissism

A
  • fully functioning = mastery goal orientation (learning)
  • narcissism = performance goal orientation (ego)
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27
Q

describe the aspiration index

A
  • 2D circumplex of goals
  • one dimension looks at intrinsic vs extrinsic
  • second dimension looks at physical self vs self-transcendence
  • in combination, they describe 11 different goal domains (areas of goal focus)
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28
Q

describe the intrinsic/extrinsic dimension of the Aspiration index

A
  • intrinsic = driven by needs, inherently satisfying (e.g. community)
  • extrinsic = driven by reward/praise, means to ends (e.g. popularity)
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29
Q

describe the physical self/self-transcendence dimension of the aspiration index

A
  • physical self = self-enhancement (e.g. physical safety)
  • self-transcendence = enhancement of others (e.g. spirituality)
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30
Q

what are the 11 different goal domains of the aspiration index

A

extrinsic + self-transcendence –> Trump
- popularity
- conformity (to fit in with others)
- image
extrinsic + physical self
- financial success
intrinsic + self-transcendence –> most common in fully-functioning people
- spirituality (to find meaning –> especially in self-actualized people)
- community
- affiliation
- self-accestance
intrinsic + physical self
- physical health
- safety (to feel safe)
- hedonism (to feel food

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31
Q

what is self-efficacy

A

belief that one can execute a course of action to achieve a goal –> more likely to do what they need to do to get there

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32
Q

what is the self

A
  • a person’s essential being that distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or reflexive action (dictionary definition)
  • essence, made up of several constituents –> can measure expressions of the self
  • we still don’t know the essence of self as differentiated from its manifestations –> can’t measure this directly (Kohut)
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33
Q

according to Harter, what are the two aspects of the self

A
  • the active observer (the “I”)
  • the Me as observed
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34
Q

describe William James’s description of the duality of the self

A
  • the “I” –> self-awareness, self as an agent observing (capacity for acute self-awareness, introspection)
  • the “me” –> self-concept, self as the object being observed (descriptive)
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35
Q

what is self awareness

A

foundational aspect of the self –> we wouldn’t have any other parts of the self without this

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36
Q

how is the emergence of self-awareness measured

A
  • mirror test –> behavioural method to assess visual self-recognition
  • assumed to indicate self-awareness
  • kids develop self-awareness at around 18 months
  • cross-culturally validation is inconsistent
37
Q

is self-awareness uniquely human?

A
  • animals that pass it: humans chimps, bonobos, orangutans, gorillas, asian elephants, dolphins, orcas, ants, etc.
  • not uniquely human
  • not found in dogs
  • cats respond to snapchat filter on owner’s face
38
Q

why might we observe cross-cultural differences in performance on the mirror task of self awareness

A
  • differences in familiarity with mirrors
  • differences in gravitation towards looking in mirror
39
Q

describe the evolution of the “emergent self”

A
  • adaptations present in highly intelligent species (ToM, self-recognition, complex societies, communication, tool use)
  • these adaptations lead to an emergent self, which seeks to be expressed in more complex ways
40
Q

what are the seven components of self concept

A
  • self-schemas
  • autobiographical memories
  • self-construal
  • looking glass self
  • ideal self
  • undesired self
  • ought self
41
Q

what is the self-concept

A
  • the descriptive component of the self
  • knowledge and beliefs about oneself as a physical, social, psychological and moral being
  • e.g. personal characteristics, ascribed identities, social and group identities, interests/activities, material possessions (e.g. have a lot of books) abstract/existential (“me”)
42
Q

what are self-schemas

A
  • combine and interact to form our self-concept (e.g. helped older man cross street = kind; lives in vancouver = canadaian citizen)
  • knowledge structures, cognitive representations of the self-concept
  • often formulated as a cognitive/neural structure
43
Q

what are our four key self-schemas

A
  • possible selves = ideas people have about who they might become
  • ideal self = what a person wants to be
  • ought self = what a person believes others want them to be
  • undesired selves = what a person wants to avoid being
44
Q

is there such a thing as an “authentic” or “true” self

A
  • think of it the other way around (i.e. acting “fake”)
  • the self you are in the moment = true self
  • authentic self might be closer to ideal self
  • self without expectations to act a certain way
  • way people are inclined to naturally present themselves
  • its okay to not always being “authentic” –> saying everything we think/feel might not yield social benefits
45
Q

describe the idea of the “looking glass” self

A
  • the self is socially constructed
  • our sense of self is built upon the life-long experience of seeing ourselves through the eyes of others (i.e. through the looking class)
46
Q

describe self concept through self narratives

A
  • self-concept is formed by integrating life experiences (and self-defining memories)
  • internalized, evolving story of the self that provides the person with a sense of unity and purpose
47
Q

what is social identity

A
  • social component of the self (self that we show to others)
  • part of ourselves that we use to create impressions
  • continuity: people can count on you to be the same person tomorrow as you were today
  • contrast: your social identity differentiates you from others, makes you unique in the eyes of others
48
Q

what are two types of identity crises that people might experience

A
  • identity conflict –> two different aspects of identity that you show to others that are incompatible
  • identity deficit –> doesn’t have a well formed social identity (or not confident in it)
49
Q

what situation or condition might lead to identity conflict

A
  • end of relationship
  • life transitions
  • when forced to make a difficult decision (might do something inconsistent with identity)
50
Q

identity conflict

A

two different aspects of identity that you show to others that are incompatible

51
Q

identity deficit

A

doesn’t have a well formed social identity (or not confident in it)

52
Q

what is poor social identity associated with

A

psychological problems and suicidal ideation

53
Q

describe the idea that we all have at least 2 selves

A
  • our inner, private self (self-concept)
  • the self we show to others (social identity)

–> we all have some form of multiplicity of the self

54
Q

what is self-concept differentiation

A
  • tendency to see oneself as having different traits across different social roles
  • have more “multiple selves”
  • greater differentiation/multiple selves = greater number of self-concepts or identities across roles
55
Q

what is self complexity

A
  • reflects the number and diversity of self-aspects developed for meaningful facets of one’s life
  • increased self-complexity = increased diverse/numerous aspects of one’s self concept (e.g. having lots of hobbies)
56
Q

why might self complexity be adaptive

A
  • greater variety of skills/abilities = adapting to different situations
  • not “putting all eggs in one basket” –> if spend all time in romantic relationship, then you have more internal challenges when this ends
57
Q

why might multiple selves be adaptive or maladaptive

A
  • can adapt yourself to different situations –> can foster community
  • could bring up questions from others (questioning your authenticity)
  • might take lots of mental energy (especially in a situation where you can’t be yourself) to do this, and might spend time questioning who you really are
58
Q

what has research on self-concept differentiation versus consistency suggested

A
  • suggested to be associated with psychological maladjustment
  • self-concept consistency appears to be adaptive
  • higher differentiation = depression and low self-esteem
  • reflects psychological fragmentation and lack of an integrated core self (questions of authenticity)
  • concept of the self loses meaning if person has multiple selves
59
Q

what is a defining feature of selfhood and identity

A

unity –> essence of self involves integration of diverse experiences into a unity

60
Q

describe what research has found on multiple selves in collectivistic cultures

A
  • social situations in collectivistic cultures call for a self that is malleable and context-sensitive
  • in contrary, consistency of self/identity is a hallmark of individualism
61
Q

describe what research has found in people from asian cultures, in terms of multiple selves

A
  • Asian cultures have less consistent self-concepts across roles
  • consistency is less predictive of well-being
  • doesn’t mean they don’t have a less coherent self
  • people are just as stable over time within roles (and inconsistency in roles is still associated with maladjustment and poor relationship functioning)
62
Q

what is self-esteem

A
  • evaluative component of the self
  • evaluation of the self-concept
  • evaluation (positive/negative) of oneself as a physical, psychological, social and moral being
  • affective AND cognitive
  • global or specific
  • measured implicitly or explicitly
63
Q

what are the 6 myths of self-esteem

A
  • high SE = everything positive (e.g. physical attractiveness, smart, kind, generous)
  • high SE = success in school
  • high SE = success at work/job
  • high SE = likeable
  • low SE = greater risk of substance abuse and premature sexual activity
  • low SE = precursor to aggression and bullying
64
Q

why might it be false that high self-esteem = everything positive (e.g. physical attractiveness, smart, kind, generous)

A

people with high SE might THINK they have all these things, but they actually might not have them in reality

65
Q

why might it be false that high self esteem = success in school and work/job

A

over time (longitudinally) it is correlated with this, but high self esteem itself does not cause this

66
Q

why might it be false that high self-esteem = likeability

A

might come across as conceited to others

67
Q

why might it be false that low self-esteem = greater risk of substance abuse and premature sexual activity

A

it is actually the opposite –> overconfidence = more risk taking

68
Q

why might it be false that low self-esteem = aggression & bullying

A

explicit self-esteem is associated with aggression and bullying

69
Q

describe why there is often no obvious relationship between people’s accomplishments/virtues and their self-esteem

A
  • most of us have self-serving bias
  • some of us have undeservedly high self-esteem (i.e. “positive illusions”)
  • some people have low self-esteem despite lots of achievements (e.g. early childhood experiences, or psychological disorders)
70
Q

what evidence is there that positive self-illusions are adaptive

A
  • might help resilience during hardship
  • aids self-forgiveness
  • faking it until you make it –> need to be confident and take risks to be successful
  • over time, might lead you to ignore problems, and hold you back from personal growth/development
  • might find yourselves experiencing failure which you should have predicted beforehand
71
Q

what does research find on the adaptiveness of positive illusions in the short term

A
  • positive emotions, wellbeing, and high self-esteem
  • better performance on experimental tasks
72
Q

what does research find on the adaptiveness of positive illusions in the long term

A
  • decreasing levels of wellbeing and self-esteem
  • disengagement from school and increased likelihood of dropping out
  • less liked by peers
  • higher aggression
  • narcissism
73
Q

are self-esteem programs for children a good thing?

A
  • positive illusions can mask some of reality
  • some competition is healthy –> different amounts of effort
  • people should look at what they are good at and what others are good at
  • research suggests that false self-esteem based on unconditional praise can actually inhibit academic performance
74
Q

what are some things a person could do to live more authentically

A
  • perceive reality efficiently
  • overcome biases
  • escape echo chambers
  • develop an accurate self-concept (practice self-awareness)
  • try to see/present oneself consistently across/within roles and settings
  • avoid extreme positive illusions and narcissistic tendencies
  • strive towards self-actualization (be a “fully functioning” person)
  • strive to be your ideal self (not your ought self)
  • set growth-oriented goals that maximize your potential
75
Q

what parts of the self do positive illusions overlap with

A

self-concept and self-esteem

76
Q

what parts of the self do multiple selves overlap with

A

self-concept and social identity

77
Q

what might authenticity of the self look like

A

dissolving boundaries between self-esteem, social identity and self-concept (and even self-awareness)–> creating an “integrated” self

78
Q

define existential anxiety (angst)

A
  • existence in modern society is difficult because the world seems to have no overarching purpose
  • need to answer two questions: why am I here, and what should I be doing
  • failure to come up with answers to these questions = angst
79
Q

what are the two ways to deal with angst (existential psychology)

A
  • face the unpleasant questions with courage and optimism
  • live in “bad faith”
80
Q

describe the three factors of living in “bad faith” (existential psychology)

A
  • quit worrying about what life means
  • get a good job, buy a nice car, advance your social status (make everything seem good on the outside)
  • do as you are told by society, convention, your peer group, political propaganda, religious dogma, and/or advertising
81
Q

describe authentic existence (existential psychology)

A
  • living according to true self
  • living a life that is honest, insightful, and moral
  • achieving meaning and sense of purpose
  • will to meaning
  • pursuit of happiness won’t take us anywhere –> need suffering to experience growth
82
Q

how is authenticity described today

A
  • the unobstructed operation/expression of one’s true self
  • being yourself, knowing yourself, and not conforming to others’ expectations
  • note: there is a difference between trait and state authenticity
83
Q

what are the four parts of modern “authenticity”

A
  • awareness of strengths/weaknesses, likes/dislikes, motives
  • unbiased processing of self-relevant information
  • behaving in accord with one’s values, preferences and needs
  • being authentic in close relationships (e.g. sincere and faithful)
84
Q

what 6 things has authenticity been associated with

A
  • high extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience
  • high honesty/humility
  • health and wellbeing
  • lower stress
  • less negative, more positive emotion
  • self-actualization
85
Q

when do people feel most authentic

A

people feel more authentic when they are displaying behaviour that is socially desirable

86
Q

why might there be a downside to authenticity

A
  • some suggest it might limit our growth
  • we latch onto authenticity as an excuse for sticking with what’s comfortable (can hold you back)
  • feeling like a fake could be a sign of growth
87
Q

is authenticity a western concept

A
  • sense of being one’s true self appears to be more aligned with Western views of self (e.g. independence)
  • but people from collectivistic cultures DO experience feelings of authenticity and inauthenticity –> associated with negative emotions
  • authenticity is associated with wellbeing in Asian cultures, but is based on feeling like one’s true self within (not across) social roles
88
Q

who is society might experience greater barriers/challenges to authenticity

A
  • if lower needs of Maslow’s hierarchy are not met –> facing physical and societal barriers
  • marginalized people (oppression, stigmatization)
  • common theme of activism is to be one’s authentic self
  • changing settings
  • children (restrained by parents/teachers)
89
Q

what does Buddhism suggest about the ego

A
  • anatman = “non-self”
  • there is no unchanging, permanent self
  • clinging to this leads to suffering
  • have to be somebody before you can be nobody
  • others believe we should completely conquer the ego

PSYC 315 Personality (16 decks)

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