Lecture 7 Flashcards
what is cognition
awareness and thinking, as well as specific mental acts (e.g. perceiving, interpreting, remembering, judging)
- focus is on perception, interpretation and conscious goals
what are schemas (and schemata)
- cognitive knowledge structures or mental concepts
- provide a framework for encoding and integrating new and ambiguous information
- informs us of what to expect
- affect how we select, interpret, organize & evaluate experiences
how do schemas affect how we select, interpret, organize & evaluate experiences
- guide attention (details we attend to in the environment)
- fill in missing details (reconstructive memory)
- interpret information that verifies our pre-existing beliefs
describe how we have gender schemas
we have a schema about what genders look like, that lead us to make assumptions about other people and form expectations about them –> useful and problematic
what is the best way to change/overcome our schemas
mindfulness
describe how we have schemas for ourselves
- help us organize our personal experiences and beliefs
- information that is relevant to the self
describe Kelly’s personal construct theory
- people have a few key constructs (schemas) that they habitually apply in interpreting their world, particularly the social world
- reality is constructed through bipolar concepts of the world around us (e.g. gay or straight, good or bad)
what is confirmation bias
- people are more likely to actively seek out and agree with ideas that are similar to their own, and ignore others
- involves negative feelings about difference views and opinions
- usually unconscious
- some are more inclined to engage in this
- over time, leads to belief perseverance (difficulty in changing perspective)
- smarter people are more likely to engage in this when the nature of the content is political
which traits are associated with a higher tendency for confirmation bias
- low humility/modesty
- low openness
describe how social media can create echo chambers
- users only see posts from like-minded friends
- further exacerbated by Facebook algorithms tailoring content to users
- driven by confirmation bias
what is locus of control
a person’s perception of responsibility for life events (can be internal or external) –> contemporary theories see it as a spectrum
internal locus of control
- a generalized expectancy that events are under one’s control and that one is responsible for outcomes in life
- hard work pays off, high achievement striving
- associated with more positive outcomes (health, success, etc.)
external locus of control
- a generalized expectancy that events are outside of one’s control
- blame luck, chance or others for outcomes
attribution theory
- looks at people’s explanatory style
- there are three factors involved in explaining the causes of events
- internal/external, stable/unstable, global/specific
- might apply differently when talking about good or bad events
- specific evaluation of events
what traits are associated with external/internal locus of control
- high external locus = neuroticism
- high internal locus = conscientiousness
internal/external explanatory style (attribution theory)
do you blame yourself or the world
stable/unstable explanatory style (attribution theory)
temporary or consistent over time
global/specific explanatory style (attribution theory)
pervasive or applies to this event only
in regards to negative events, which style is associated with depression vs grandiose narcissism
- depression = internal, stable, global
- grandiose narcissism = external, unstable, specific
–> note this is only for negative events
in regards to negative events, which style is associated with depression vs grandiose narcissism
- depression = internal, stable, global
- grandiose narcissism = external, unstable, specific
describe what is indicative of a pessimistic explanatory style
emphasizes internal, stable and global causes for bad events
describe an optimistic explanatory style
emphasizes external, temporary and specific causes for bad events
what are the two types of goal orientation
- mastery goal orientation (learning orientation)
- performance goal orientation (ego orientation)
mastery goal orientation (learning orientation)
individuals seek to develop their competence and improve their abilities
performance goal orientation (ego orientation)
individuals seek to demonstrate their competence and/or avoid revealing their incompetence
what type of goal orientation is more likely for a fully functioning person versus someone high in narcissism
- fully functioning = mastery goal orientation (learning)
- narcissism = performance goal orientation (ego)
describe the aspiration index
- 2D circumplex of goals
- one dimension looks at intrinsic vs extrinsic
- second dimension looks at physical self vs self-transcendence
- in combination, they describe 11 different goal domains (areas of goal focus)
describe the intrinsic/extrinsic dimension of the Aspiration index
- intrinsic = driven by needs, inherently satisfying (e.g. community)
- extrinsic = driven by reward/praise, means to ends (e.g. popularity)
describe the physical self/self-transcendence dimension of the aspiration index
- physical self = self-enhancement (e.g. physical safety)
- self-transcendence = enhancement of others (e.g. spirituality)
what are the 11 different goal domains of the aspiration index
extrinsic + self-transcendence –> Trump
- popularity
- conformity (to fit in with others)
- image
extrinsic + physical self
- financial success
intrinsic + self-transcendence –> most common in fully-functioning people
- spirituality (to find meaning –> especially in self-actualized people)
- community
- affiliation
- self-accestance
intrinsic + physical self
- physical health
- safety (to feel safe)
- hedonism (to feel food
what is self-efficacy
belief that one can execute a course of action to achieve a goal –> more likely to do what they need to do to get there
what is the self
- a person’s essential being that distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or reflexive action (dictionary definition)
- essence, made up of several constituents –> can measure expressions of the self
- we still don’t know the essence of self as differentiated from its manifestations –> can’t measure this directly (Kohut)
according to Harter, what are the two aspects of the self
- the active observer (the “I”)
- the Me as observed
describe William James’s description of the duality of the self
- the “I” –> self-awareness, self as an agent observing (capacity for acute self-awareness, introspection)
- the “me” –> self-concept, self as the object being observed (descriptive)
what is self awareness
foundational aspect of the self –> we wouldn’t have any other parts of the self without this
how is the emergence of self-awareness measured
- mirror test –> behavioural method to assess visual self-recognition
- assumed to indicate self-awareness
- kids develop self-awareness at around 18 months
- cross-culturally validation is inconsistent
is self-awareness uniquely human?
- animals that pass it: humans chimps, bonobos, orangutans, gorillas, asian elephants, dolphins, orcas, ants, etc.
- not uniquely human
- not found in dogs
- cats respond to snapchat filter on owner’s face
why might we observe cross-cultural differences in performance on the mirror task of self awareness
- differences in familiarity with mirrors
- differences in gravitation towards looking in mirror
describe the evolution of the “emergent self”
- adaptations present in highly intelligent species (ToM, self-recognition, complex societies, communication, tool use)
- these adaptations lead to an emergent self, which seeks to be expressed in more complex ways
what are the seven components of self concept
- self-schemas
- autobiographical memories
- self-construal
- looking glass self
- ideal self
- undesired self
- ought self
what is the self-concept
- the descriptive component of the self
- knowledge and beliefs about oneself as a physical, social, psychological and moral being
- e.g. personal characteristics, ascribed identities, social and group identities, interests/activities, material possessions (e.g. have a lot of books) abstract/existential (“me”)
what are self-schemas
- combine and interact to form our self-concept (e.g. helped older man cross street = kind; lives in vancouver = canadaian citizen)
- knowledge structures, cognitive representations of the self-concept
- often formulated as a cognitive/neural structure
what are our four key self-schemas
- possible selves = ideas people have about who they might become
- ideal self = what a person wants to be
- ought self = what a person believes others want them to be
- undesired selves = what a person wants to avoid being
is there such a thing as an “authentic” or “true” self
- think of it the other way around (i.e. acting “fake”)
- the self you are in the moment = true self
- authentic self might be closer to ideal self
- self without expectations to act a certain way
- way people are inclined to naturally present themselves
- its okay to not always being “authentic” –> saying everything we think/feel might not yield social benefits
describe the idea of the “looking glass” self
- the self is socially constructed
- our sense of self is built upon the life-long experience of seeing ourselves through the eyes of others (i.e. through the looking class)
describe self concept through self narratives
- self-concept is formed by integrating life experiences (and self-defining memories)
- internalized, evolving story of the self that provides the person with a sense of unity and purpose
what is social identity
- social component of the self (self that we show to others)
- part of ourselves that we use to create impressions
- continuity: people can count on you to be the same person tomorrow as you were today
- contrast: your social identity differentiates you from others, makes you unique in the eyes of others
what are two types of identity crises that people might experience
- identity conflict –> two different aspects of identity that you show to others that are incompatible
- identity deficit –> doesn’t have a well formed social identity (or not confident in it)
what situation or condition might lead to identity conflict
- end of relationship
- life transitions
- when forced to make a difficult decision (might do something inconsistent with identity)
identity conflict
two different aspects of identity that you show to others that are incompatible
identity deficit
doesn’t have a well formed social identity (or not confident in it)
what is poor social identity associated with
psychological problems and suicidal ideation
describe the idea that we all have at least 2 selves
- our inner, private self (self-concept)
- the self we show to others (social identity)
–> we all have some form of multiplicity of the self
what is self-concept differentiation
- tendency to see oneself as having different traits across different social roles
- have more “multiple selves”
- greater differentiation/multiple selves = greater number of self-concepts or identities across roles
what is self complexity
- reflects the number and diversity of self-aspects developed for meaningful facets of one’s life
- increased self-complexity = increased diverse/numerous aspects of one’s self concept (e.g. having lots of hobbies)
why might self complexity be adaptive
- greater variety of skills/abilities = adapting to different situations
- not “putting all eggs in one basket” –> if spend all time in romantic relationship, then you have more internal challenges when this ends
why might multiple selves be adaptive or maladaptive
- can adapt yourself to different situations –> can foster community
- could bring up questions from others (questioning your authenticity)
- might take lots of mental energy (especially in a situation where you can’t be yourself) to do this, and might spend time questioning who you really are
what has research on self-concept differentiation versus consistency suggested
- suggested to be associated with psychological maladjustment
- self-concept consistency appears to be adaptive
- higher differentiation = depression and low self-esteem
- reflects psychological fragmentation and lack of an integrated core self (questions of authenticity)
- concept of the self loses meaning if person has multiple selves
what is a defining feature of selfhood and identity
unity –> essence of self involves integration of diverse experiences into a unity
describe what research has found on multiple selves in collectivistic cultures
- social situations in collectivistic cultures call for a self that is malleable and context-sensitive
- in contrary, consistency of self/identity is a hallmark of individualism
describe what research has found in people from asian cultures, in terms of multiple selves
- Asian cultures have less consistent self-concepts across roles
- consistency is less predictive of well-being
- doesn’t mean they don’t have a less coherent self
- people are just as stable over time within roles (and inconsistency in roles is still associated with maladjustment and poor relationship functioning)
what is self-esteem
- evaluative component of the self
- evaluation of the self-concept
- evaluation (positive/negative) of oneself as a physical, psychological, social and moral being
- affective AND cognitive
- global or specific
- measured implicitly or explicitly
what are the 6 myths of self-esteem
- high SE = everything positive (e.g. physical attractiveness, smart, kind, generous)
- high SE = success in school
- high SE = success at work/job
- high SE = likeable
- low SE = greater risk of substance abuse and premature sexual activity
- low SE = precursor to aggression and bullying
why might it be false that high self-esteem = everything positive (e.g. physical attractiveness, smart, kind, generous)
people with high SE might THINK they have all these things, but they actually might not have them in reality
why might it be false that high self esteem = success in school and work/job
over time (longitudinally) it is correlated with this, but high self esteem itself does not cause this
why might it be false that high self-esteem = likeability
might come across as conceited to others
why might it be false that low self-esteem = greater risk of substance abuse and premature sexual activity
it is actually the opposite –> overconfidence = more risk taking
why might it be false that low self-esteem = aggression & bullying
explicit self-esteem is associated with aggression and bullying
describe why there is often no obvious relationship between people’s accomplishments/virtues and their self-esteem
- most of us have self-serving bias
- some of us have undeservedly high self-esteem (i.e. “positive illusions”)
- some people have low self-esteem despite lots of achievements (e.g. early childhood experiences, or psychological disorders)
what evidence is there that positive self-illusions are adaptive
- might help resilience during hardship
- aids self-forgiveness
- faking it until you make it –> need to be confident and take risks to be successful
- over time, might lead you to ignore problems, and hold you back from personal growth/development
- might find yourselves experiencing failure which you should have predicted beforehand
what does research find on the adaptiveness of positive illusions in the short term
- positive emotions, wellbeing, and high self-esteem
- better performance on experimental tasks
what does research find on the adaptiveness of positive illusions in the long term
- decreasing levels of wellbeing and self-esteem
- disengagement from school and increased likelihood of dropping out
- less liked by peers
- higher aggression
- narcissism
are self-esteem programs for children a good thing?
- positive illusions can mask some of reality
- some competition is healthy –> different amounts of effort
- people should look at what they are good at and what others are good at
- research suggests that false self-esteem based on unconditional praise can actually inhibit academic performance
what are some things a person could do to live more authentically
- perceive reality efficiently
- overcome biases
- escape echo chambers
- develop an accurate self-concept (practice self-awareness)
- try to see/present oneself consistently across/within roles and settings
- avoid extreme positive illusions and narcissistic tendencies
- strive towards self-actualization (be a “fully functioning” person)
- strive to be your ideal self (not your ought self)
- set growth-oriented goals that maximize your potential
what parts of the self do positive illusions overlap with
self-concept and self-esteem
what parts of the self do multiple selves overlap with
self-concept and social identity
what might authenticity of the self look like
dissolving boundaries between self-esteem, social identity and self-concept (and even self-awareness)–> creating an “integrated” self
define existential anxiety (angst)
- existence in modern society is difficult because the world seems to have no overarching purpose
- need to answer two questions: why am I here, and what should I be doing
- failure to come up with answers to these questions = angst
what are the two ways to deal with angst (existential psychology)
- face the unpleasant questions with courage and optimism
- live in “bad faith”
describe the three factors of living in “bad faith” (existential psychology)
- quit worrying about what life means
- get a good job, buy a nice car, advance your social status (make everything seem good on the outside)
- do as you are told by society, convention, your peer group, political propaganda, religious dogma, and/or advertising
describe authentic existence (existential psychology)
- living according to true self
- living a life that is honest, insightful, and moral
- achieving meaning and sense of purpose
- will to meaning
- pursuit of happiness won’t take us anywhere –> need suffering to experience growth
how is authenticity described today
- the unobstructed operation/expression of one’s true self
- being yourself, knowing yourself, and not conforming to others’ expectations
- note: there is a difference between trait and state authenticity
what are the four parts of modern “authenticity”
- awareness of strengths/weaknesses, likes/dislikes, motives
- unbiased processing of self-relevant information
- behaving in accord with one’s values, preferences and needs
- being authentic in close relationships (e.g. sincere and faithful)
what 6 things has authenticity been associated with
- high extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience
- high honesty/humility
- health and wellbeing
- lower stress
- less negative, more positive emotion
- self-actualization
when do people feel most authentic
people feel more authentic when they are displaying behaviour that is socially desirable
why might there be a downside to authenticity
- some suggest it might limit our growth
- we latch onto authenticity as an excuse for sticking with what’s comfortable (can hold you back)
- feeling like a fake could be a sign of growth
is authenticity a western concept
- sense of being one’s true self appears to be more aligned with Western views of self (e.g. independence)
- but people from collectivistic cultures DO experience feelings of authenticity and inauthenticity –> associated with negative emotions
- authenticity is associated with wellbeing in Asian cultures, but is based on feeling like one’s true self within (not across) social roles
who is society might experience greater barriers/challenges to authenticity
- if lower needs of Maslow’s hierarchy are not met –> facing physical and societal barriers
- marginalized people (oppression, stigmatization)
- common theme of activism is to be one’s authentic self
- changing settings
- children (restrained by parents/teachers)
what does Buddhism suggest about the ego
- anatman = “non-self”
- there is no unchanging, permanent self
- clinging to this leads to suffering
- have to be somebody before you can be nobody
- others believe we should completely conquer the ego
