Lecture 6 Flashcards
what are some of the “neo-Freudians” of the neo-analytic movement
- Carl Jung
- Anna Freud (youngest daughter; psychoanalysis in children)
- Alfred Adler
- Heinz Kohut
- Erik Erikson
- Karen Horney et al.
–> modern contextualizations of Freud’s work
what was a discipline born out of Freudian psychology
- ego psychology –> focused on the development of the ego within reality
- emphasized the role of identity, which is experienced by a person as a sense of self
what was a discipline born out of Freudian psychology
- ego psychology –> focused on the development of the ego within reality
- emphasized the role of identity, which is experienced by a person as a sense of self
what was a discipline born out of Freudian psychology
- ego psychology –> focused on the development of the ego within reality (rather than development of Id)
- emphasized the role of identity, which is experienced by a person as a sense of self –> how we see yourself
what was a discipline born out of Freudian psychology
- ego psychology –> focused on the development of the ego within reality
- emphasized the role of identity, which is experienced by a person as a sense of self
what is the modern interpretation of “ego”
inflated self-esteem
what is narcissism
- part of ego psychology
- extreme preoccupation with the self, accompanied by inflated self-admiration, grandiosity, entitlement and attention-seeking
- bragging/boasting, arrogance, sensitivity to criticism, low empathy, derogation of others, bullying, vanity, exhibitionism
- higher narcissism = lower empathy
- unbased superiority –> creates feelings of injustice in others
how do moderate levels of narcissism manifest
-self-serving bias
- slightly unrealistically positive self-image
- some drive to feel special
- some suggest this is psychologically healthy –> protective buffer, standing up for self, promoting yourself (confidence)
how do low levels of narcissism manifest
- very modest
- self effacing
- extremely high modest has negative implications for psychological wellbeing (too held back)
- different from high honesty/humility
how does narcissism evolve over time
- egocentrism in infancy
- declines over time for most (not narcissists)
note: can be egocentric but not narcissistic
describe how narcissism is a trait
- people lie on a scale of low to high narcissism
- some suggest moderate levels is healthy psychologically
what is narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)
- pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy
- accompanied by functional impairments (causing problem in area of life, causing significant distress)
- pathological
note: lack of empathy is crucial in differentiating narcissism from NPD
what is malignant narcissism
- narcissistic AND antisocial –> not a formal diagnosis, but starts to merge into psychopathy (narcissism is so high, the person is willing to hurt others to get what they want and maintain their image)
- all fascists/dictators and cult leaders are malignant narcissists
why is it hard to determine functional impairment in narcissistic personality disorder
- the person believes everything is great
- resistant to reporting impairments or struggle
- greater reliance on objective indicators (how often do you lose relationships) and family/friend reports
- might be aware of losing friendships, but might not understand the extent of it
what evidence is there that Trump is a narcissist
- inflated self-admiration
- expressive focus on self
- bragging, attention seeking
- superiority, entitlement
- sensitivity to criticism
- degrading, attacking others
- insisted hurricane Dorian would hit Alabama even though weather agencies said there was no threat (would not admit mistake)
what are five facts that contemporary research shows about narcissism
- may use more first-person singular pronouns (“I” talk) –> up for debate
- look in the mirror more, watch recordings of themselves more often
- interrupt others more often during conversation
- become distressed and aggressive when insulted (focus on failure, weakness or insecurity)
- make good first impressions
how is narcissism different from self-confidence
people who are confident do not need to get compliments from other people, don’t get insulted by others as easily –> narcissists get very insulted when their insecurities are targetted
why do Narcissists make good first impressions
might at first just think they have high confidence and self-esteem –> we are generally drawn to people like this, and are physically attracted to these people
what is some evidence from Trump’s behaviour that suggests narcissism
- interrupted Clinton more times than she interrupted him
- when comparing Trump to all other candidates on average, Trump used a higher rate of personal pronouns (suggests grandiosity)
- scored higher on narcissism compared to other republican candidates (when looking at derogation and boasting in his speeches)
what is boasting associated with
- more votes –> more boasting makes a good first impression
- more derogation was not correlated with this
describe some contemporary research on narcissism and social media
- use social media more
- post more in general, more about accomplishments, and more selfies
- receive more likes on their posts
describe some contemporary research on narcissism and social media
- divide people to gain power over them
- make threats and lies to influence people’s emotions and behaviours
- distort reality by arguing fiction is fact
- engage in gaslighting (make people doubt what is real)
what is an inferiority complex
- lack of self-worth, resulting from early development (e.g. some parenting practices increase narcissism in children like lack of attention or warmth)
- low self-esteem
- overcompensate through “striving for superiority” –> making others unhappy
- foundation for narcissism
what is the narcissistic paradox
- although narcissists appear to have high self-esteem, they have doubts over their self-worth
- thus, narcissism is a complex defence mechanism
- narcissism is not self-love, it is self-loathing in disguise
what explains the narcissistic paradox
- narcissists have extremely positive but simultaneously fragile self-views
- built in inherent vulnerability
- it is a self that cannot stand on its own, as it is not grounded in an objective reality
- needs constant shoring up and reinforcement
how do you measure implicit vs explicit self esteem
- implicit is unconscious and deeper thus can’t be asked directly –> look at how people associate positive/negative words with the letter of their names, look at the size of signatures
- low implicit self-esteem in narcissists, though high explicit self-esteem
- most people actually have higher implicit than explicit self-esteem (self-serving bias that can be beneficial)
what are the two types of narcissism
grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism
grandiose narcissism
- high self-esteem, social dominance, exhibitionism, overestimation of abilities
- fantasies about superiority, perfection and/or omnipotence
- “overt” –> most commonly thought of
- might also have high implicit self-esteem (definitely high explicit)
- might be closer to psychopathy than vulnerable narcissism
what big 5 trait is grandiose narcissism associated with
high extraversion, low agreeableness (also aggressiveness)
vulnerable narcissism
- anxiety, defensiveness, avoidance, insecurity, hypersensitivity and vulnerability, vigilance for criticism
- “covert”
- worry about appearing as a failure to others
what big 5 traits is vulnerable narcissism associated with
high neuroticism, low extraversion, low agreeableness
what are involved in both types of narcissism
- self-centredness
- self-indulgence
- entitlement
- disregard for others
- interpersonal antagonism
- note: these types might converge at a certain level
what type of narcissism characterizes Donald Trump
- grandiose narcissism – high self-esteem, social dominance, fantasies about superiority, perfection etc.
- vulnerable narcissism – vigilance for criticism, defensiveness
–> but sensitivity to criticism is still indicative of grandiose (respond with anger rather than anxiety/depression)
describe Miller’s three-factor structure of narcissism
- agentic extraversion
- antagonism
- neuroticism
describe Krizan & Herlache’s definition of narcissism
entitled self-importance
what are the three parts of the narcissism spectrum model
- self importance (entitlement)
- grandiosity (exhibitionism)
- vulnerability (defensiveness)
what do Kowalchyk et al argue about narcissism
genuine narcissism involves deep insecurities and is more similar to vulnerable narcissism, while grandiose narcissism is more similar to psychopathy
what four successes are associated with narcissism
- show business
- leadership
- job interviews
- initial interactions
BUT they lose popularity over time
describe Erik Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development
- focused on ego development over life
- identified common/necessary tensions inherent to each stage of development
- goal: struggle with tensions and grow
What are the 8 stages of psychosocial development (Erikson’s theory)
- infancy (0-2) –> trust/mistrust
- toddlerhood (2-3) –> autonomy vs shame/doubt
- young children (3-4) –> initiative (purpose) vs guilt
- elementary school (4-12) –> industry vs inferiority
- adolescence (13-19) –> identity vs role confusion
- young adulthood (20-39) –> intimacy vs isolation
- adulthood (40-64) –> generativity vs stagnation
- old age (65+) –> integrity vs despair
describe Erikson’s infancy stage
- trust vs mistrust
- negative outcomes: dependent or paranoid
describe Erikson’s toddlerhood stage
- autonomy vs shame/doubt
- negative outcomes: obsessive/impulsive or avoidant
describe Erikson’s young childhood stage
- initiative (purpose) vs guilt
- negative outcomes: antisocial/narcissistic or constricted
object relations theory
- formed basis for attachment theory
- examines the process of developing one’s psyche in relation to others in the environment
- internalized representations of parents (unconscious) become basis for relating to others in life
- first social attachments form prototypes (schemas) for future relationships
attachment theory (John Bowlby)
- infants must develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for successful development
- main factors in parenting are sensitivity and responsiveness
what are the four childhood attachment styles
- secure –> well-adjusted, trusting (caregivers responsive to needs)
- anxious-ambivalent –> anxious, clingy (caregivers inconsistent)
- avoidant –> uninterested, emotionally distant (caregivers neglectful)
- disorganized –> erratic (caregivers depressed, traumatized or abusive)
what attachment style is associated with narcissism
avoidant attachment (grandiose), maybe anxious-ambivalent (vulnerable) –> Trump’s attachment was probably one of these (more evidence for avoidant)
what are the four adult attachment styles
- secure style –> comfortable with intimacy, autonomous & dependent
- preoccupied (ambivalent) style –> crave intimacy, worried about partners
- dismissive-avoidant style –> minimizes closeness, intimacy = loss of independence
- fearful-avoidant style –> want relationship but difficulty trusting others
note: not always related with childhood attachment styles
what kind of attachment style does Trump have (using evidence with his wife and son)
- dismissive-avoidant –> minimizes closeness, wants independence
- leaves wife after getting out of car, said “she has a son” rather than referring to him as his son
what three parenting styles are associated with high narcissism
- neglectful –> lack of empathy and warmth
- authoritarian –> insists on perfection, winning and toughness
- permissive/indulgent –> can promote entitled attitudes
what did Horney argue about entitlement and narcissism
- narcissism involves low self-esteem
- suggested that indulgence (via over-permissive parents) in childhood leads to excessive self-idealization
describe Brummelman’s study on childhood narcissism
- looked at children and parental behaviours
- children answered questions about narcissism and self-esteem
- parents answered questions about parental overvaluation and parental warmth
- support for social learning theory –> narcissism was predicted by parental overvaluation, not by lack of warmth
what evidence is there that narcissism is rising among young people (i.e. a narcissism epidemic)
- 30% increase in those scoring above the mean on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory
- 48% drop in empathic concern, 34% drop in perspective taking
- rising individualism
- association between rising social inequality in the US and rising narcissism
what is suggested by motivational psychology
- what drives people to do the things they do
- personality is seen as consisting of a few general motives or drives
what is a need
- a state of tension within a person
- as a need is satisfied, the related tension is reduced
- produces a motive
what is a motive
- internal state that arouses and directs behaviour toward a specific object or goal
- caused by a deficit or lack of something
- based on a need
what is a press
a need-relevant aspect of the environment
describe Henry Murray’s Theory of Needs
- primary needs: based on biological demands, such as the need for oxygen, food, and water
- secondary (‘psychogenic’) needs: not always necessary for survival, but essential for psychological wellbeing
what are primary needs (Murray’s theory of needs)
based on biological demands, such as the need for oxygen, food, and water
what are secondary (‘psychogenic’) needs (Murray’s theory of needs)
- not always necessary for survival, but essential for psychological wellbeing
- ambition needs, needs to defend status (dominance), needs related to social power, social affection needs
what are the big three motives
- need for achievement (growth, success, competence)
- need for power (having impact on others)
- need for intimacy (warmth, closeness, communication)
–> think of agency (power) vs communion (intimacy) –> achievement is often driven by both
describe humanistic psychology
- emphasis is on the conscious awareness of needs, choices, and personal responsibility
- motive to self-actualize
- focus on growth instead of deficiency –> human nature is positive
- human need for growth and realizing one’s full potential
describe Maslow’s humanistic psychology
- stressed importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people
- founded hierarchy of needs, self-actualization, peak experiences, and psychology of religious experiences
what are the five levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (top to bottom)
- self-actualization needs
- esteem needs
- belongingness / love needs
- safety needs
- physiological needs
what is the theory behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- theory of human motivation, implications for psychological development
- lower needs must be (mostly) satisfied before higher-order needs can be met
- motivations from multiple levels can be observed in the same behaviour
according to Maslow’s hierarchy, when can needs be skipped
- the need has been met before
- if one believes it could be met
describe self actualization needs (Maslow’s hierarchy)
drive towards creativity, realization of full potential, becoming true self
describe esteem needs (Maslow’s hierarchy)
self-esteem, self-respect, valued & accepted, recognition
describe belongingness/love needs (Maslow)
sense of belonging, acceptance in social groups
describe safety needs (Maslow)
personal security, financial security, health, safety against accidents and threats
describe physiological needs
air, water, food, shelter, clothing
describe physiological needs
air, water, food, shelter, clothing
what are peak experiences (Maslow)
highest level –> spiritual, flow
what are D-needs (Maslow)
“deficit needs” –> needs driven by a deficit –> propelled people to seek out something to resolve deficit
what are B-needs (Maslow)
“being needs” –> driven by desire to be true self –> not resolving tension or fulfilling deficit, but of being propelled towards something, these things don’t have a point of being “met”
what is self actualization (according to Maslow)
- final level of psychological development
- living life according to one’s true self (becoming more and more what one idiosyncratically is and more towards what someone is capable of becoming)
- achieved only when all basic and mental needs are fulfilled and full potential dominates the individual
- growth-motivated (NOT deficiency-motivated, no end is met)
- people don’t have one pre-destined path –> we figure out person-environment fit as we go (what makes you fulfilled, what are you good at)
describe Winnicott’s notion of a false self
- other people’s expectations can become of overriding importance –> overlays and contradicts the original sense of self
- similarly, Kohut suggested narcissism serves as a defensive armour (artificial)
- true self is the natural way of being
what are some characteristics of self actualizers (15 total)
- efficient perception of reality
- acceptable of themselves/others
- spontaneous and natural
- problem focus/task centering
- affinity for solitude/autonomy
- independence from culture and environment
- continued freshness of appreciation
- more frequent peak experiences
- genuine desire to help the human race
- deep ties with relatively few people
- democratic values
- ability to discriminate between means and ends
- philosophical sense of humour
- creativity
- resistance to enculturation
how did Maslow identify the characteristics of self actualizers
- looked at highly successful people (e.g. Eleanor Roosevelt, Albert Einstein), and also at an anonymous student population
- note that his criteria does not really apply to neurodivergent populations, or people with mental/clinical disorders
how did Kaufman study characteristics of self-actualizers
developed a 30-item self-report measure of 10 characteristics of self-actualizers (as proposed by Maslow)
what did Kaufman find about people who report more characteristics of self-actualization
- more motivated by growth, exploration, and love of humanity (rather than fulfillment of deficiencies)
- reported greater life satisfaction, self-acceptance, positive relations, environmental mastery, personal growth, autonomy, purpose in life and self-transcendent experiences
- displayed more creativity in many domains of achievement
was Maslow optimistic that people would achieve self actualization
no (especially not younger populations) – mostly found a normal distribution of self actualization
what is the “peak” experience
- transpersonal and ecstatic state
- feelings of euphoria, harmonization, deep meaning and interconnectedness
- individuals describe these experiences (and their revelations) as possessing a mystical, spiritual and overtly religious quality
- similar to “flow”
what is flow
- perfect balance/match between you and your environment
- don’t feel boredom or stress (not feeling overwhelmed or underwhelmed)
- most likely to occur when you are doing a task you love (e.g. art, watching sunset with headphones, performing, athletics)
- often experience a loss of time (get completely lost)
who was Carl Rogers
- co-founder of humanistic psychology
- focused on ways to self-actualize
- people are intrinsically good
- unconditional positive regard
- person-centred approach to therapy
- influenced by early childhood relationships with parents
according to Rogers, what characterized a health, ‘actualized’ personality
- self-concept is equal to the ideal self
- congruence between one’s sense of self and one’s ideal self
describe Rogers’ “full functioning” person
- someone who is one their way to self-actualization
- in touch with their deepest, innermost feelings and desires
- understands their emotions
- trusts their instincts and urges
what evidence is there that Trump is a self-actualizer
- narcissism and self-actualization are negatively correlated (opposite end of the spectrum)
- to self-actualize you have to accept yourself and others
what is a vital part of healthy psychological functioning
living harmoniously with others
what evidence is there that Steve Jobs is a self-actualizer
- he was fully functioning towards the end of his life
- most would say he was not self-actualized
- sometimes presents as self actualized
was Houston self-actualized?
in youth probably yes, but was challenges later in life
what were some other additional needs that Maslow added to his hierarchy
- aesthetic needs (appreciation of and search for beauty, balance)
- cognitive needs (knowledge, meaning and self-awareness)
- these were formally under self-actualization needs (never officially “separate” levels)
what was Maslow’s final level to the hierarchy
- self transcendence
- so self actualized you dedicate yourself to something bigger than yourself
- the self only actualizes by giving itself to some higher goal or purpose
- e.g. altruism and spirituality
- these were placed at the very top of the hierarhcy
what is the paradox of self-help books
they include themes of spirituality, but according to Maslow true spirituality includes helping others (not just yourself)
what did Maslow define as self-transcendence needs
- dedicating oneself to a higher goal
- helping others to self-actualize
- self-ego and its needs are transcended
- own needs put aside
describe some people who are described to self-transcend
- Activists (e.g. Sheila Watt-Cloutier, Inuit and environmental activist)
- Nurses
- Parenting
what is self-transcendence a main part of
one of the 3 main aspects of psychological maturity (along with self-directedness and cooperativeness)
describe the argument of “agency for the sake of communion”
- typical people (especially in individualistic contexts) use their agency to attain more agency
- those who dedicate themselves to the betterment of others actualize their self-interest (agency) by promoting the interests of others (communion)
what was found in Canadian moral exemplars
- used their agency to further both agency and communion equally
- we often think that agency and communion are mutually exclusive, but this is not always a duality
what are the three main criticisms of Maslow
- difficulty to test empirically (limited/mixed empirical evidence)
- inconsistent with certain understandings of human nature
(if purpose of life is creativity and self-fulfillment, how does this help the species survive) - hierarchy of needs is not normative (evidence for cultural differences)
describe the adapted hierarchy of needs for collectivist cultures
- self-actualization needs at the top
- safety needs
- physiological needs
- belonging needs (bottom, more fundamental, possibly evolutionary because group membership serves benefits)
- no esteem needs!
what does actualization look like in Western society
- even when deficit needs are met (e.g. overcoming hunger, gaining financial security), many people in west suffer from alienation, boredom, apathy, meaningless, and despair
- does having one’s basic needs met and living without suffering actually stifle growth?
what are some needs that modern society has
- materialism has increased among children around the world
- internet/wifi
- how easy is it to feel like our needs are satisfied? we are always fed the message that we need more
