Chapter 11: Motives and Personality Flashcards
1
Q
motives
A
- internal states that arouse and direct behaviour toward specific objects/goals
- often caused by a deficit (lack of something)
- differ from each other in type and amount, intensity
- often based on needs
2
Q
needs
A
- states of tension within a person
- need satisfied = state of tension is reduced
- needs create motives
3
Q
what kinds of motives are based on growth needs
A
self-actualization
4
Q
describe the process of motives and needs
A
deficits cause people to have a need, which initiates a motive –> motives can lead to specific actions (to satisfy the need), or fantasies (thoughts that are satisfying)
5
Q
describe the importance of internal psychological needs/motives
A
- internal needs propel people to think, perceive and act in certain predictable ways
- motives can be unconscious
6
Q
what are some techniques that reveal intrapsychic motives that are driven by the unconscious
A
- projective tests (inkblot)
- free associations
7
Q
what are the five factors stressed by motive psychologists
A
- people differ from one another in terms of type/strength of their motives
- differences are measurable
- differences are associated with important life outcomes (e.g. work/relationship success)
- differences are stable over time
- motives provide one answer to “why do people do what they do”
8
Q
what can motive psychology be thought of as
A
a halfway point between the intrapsychic domain and the dispositional domain
9
Q
describe Murray’s definition of need
A
- potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances
- organizes perception –> guide us to see what we want/need to see
- organizes action –> compels people to fulfill the need
- needs are states of tension –> it is the process of reducing tension that is satisfying (not the tensionless state itself)
10
Q
explain what was different about Murray’s theory about needs
A
- he agreed that needs were states of tension
- however, he didn’t think that the tensionless state itself was what was satisfying
- thought that the act of reducing tension what was satisfying
- people might actually seek to increase tension to experience the pleasure of reducing that tension (e.g. rollercoasters)
11
Q
describe the two types of needs Murray distinguished between
A
- primary need = viscerogenic (satisfaction by physical means; e.g. food, water, sex)
- secondary needs = psychogenic (mental/emotional)
12
Q
what three things are each psychogenic needs associated with (Murray)
A
- a specific desire or intention
- a particular set of emotions
- specific action tendencies
–> each need can be described by a trait name
13
Q
what are the 6 higher-level categories of Murray’s needs
A
- materialistic needs
- ambition needs
- needs to defend status
- needs related to social power
- social affection needs
- exchange of information needs
14
Q
describe Murray’s hierarchy of needs
A
- believed each person had a unique hierarchy of needs
- various needs exist at different levels of strength
- all needs interact with each other –> “motive dynamic”
15
Q
describe the concept of motive dynamic (Murray)
A
- interaction of various needs within a person
- dynamic = mutual influence of forces within a person
- e.g. need for dominance coupled with need for affiliation = development of social skills to lead people effectively (rather than solely a need for dominance, that would result in the person being bossy)
16
Q
what is a press (Murray)
A
- need-relevant aspects of the environment
- elements of environment affect people’s needs
- e.g. need for affiliation won’t affect behaviour UNLESS it has an appropriate environmental press (e.g. presence of friendly people)
17
Q
what are the two presses theorized by Murray
A
- alpha press (real environment, objective reality)
- beta press (reality as it is perceived, perceived environment)
18
Q
describe an example that outlines the difference between alpha and beta presses
A
- someone walks down the street and smiles at two people
- alpha press –> the same smile
- beta press –> one person sees the smile as friendly, the other sees it as a smirk (which reflects their differences in the need for affiliation)
19
Q
what is apperception (Murray)
A
- needs influence how people perceive the environment, especially when the environment is ambiguous
- apperception = act of interpreting environment and perceiving the meaning of what is going on
- asking people what is happening in ambiguous situations reveals their primary motives
20
Q
thematic apperception test (TAT; Murray)
A
- formal technique for assessing needs and motives
- set of B&W images that are ambiguous
- people asked to make up a story about what is happening in the image
- encouraged to tell story with beginning, middle and end
- coded for various types of imagery associated with particular motives (e.g. achievement imagery)
21
Q
describe why the thematic apperception test (TAT) is similar to projective techniques (2 reasons)
A
- the subject is given an ambiguous stimulus
- asked to describe and interpret what is going on
22
Q
what does the thematic apperception test (TAT) continue to be used for today
A
- primarily used to assess psychoanalytic constructs
- defence mechanisms, attachment styles, psychosexual stages
- needs and motives
23
Q
what are state levels (TAT)
A
- person’s momentary amount of a specific need
- fluctuates with specific circumstances
- e.g. person failing at a task might experiene a sharp increase in state of achievement motivation
- TAT is sensitive to changes in state levels of various motives (especially achievement, power and intimacy)
24
Q
what are trait levels (TAT)
A
- measure of person’s average tendency, or set point, on a specific trait
- people differ in their typical/average amounts of specific needs
- can average needs displayed on the TAT to assess this
25
what is the Multi-Motive Grid
- combines features of the TAT with self-reports
- 14 pictures to arouse one of the big three motives (achievement, power or intimacy)
- pictures presented along with questions about important motivational states
- idea is that photo will arouse a motive, which will influence how people answer the questions
26
what are the big three motives
achievement, power and intimacy
27
what are some limitations of the TAT
- some argue it has low test-retest reliability
- some have reported extremely low correlations between TAT measures of certain needs and questionnaire measures of the same needs
- low correlations between TAT and other outcomes (e.g. achievement scores and GPA)
28
describe McClelland's argument for why the TAT and questionnaire measures are uncorrelated
- they measure two different types of motivation
- implicit motivation = TAT
- self-attributed motivation = questionnaires
29
what is implicit motivation (McClelland)
- motives based on needs
- measured in fantasy-based measures (e.g. TAT)
- stories are implied motives of individual's writing the story
- unconscious & unspoken needs/desires
30
what is self-attributed motivation (McClelland)
- primarily a person's self-awareness or conscious motives
- normative beliefs about desirable goals and modes of conduct
- conscious self-understanding
31
what do implicit vs self-attributed motives predict (McClelland)
- implicit = long-term, spontaneous behavioural trends over time (e.g. entrepreneurial success)
- self-attributed = responses to immediate and specific situations, choice behaviours, attitudes (e.g. how hard a person will work to obtain a reward in a psychological experiment)
32
explain the need for achievement (McClelland) and what states it is associated with
- desire to do better, be successful and feel competent
- energizes our behaviour in achievement-related situations
- energized by incentives of challenge and variety
- accompanied by feelings of interest and surprise
- associated with feeling curious and exploratory
- e.g. Steve Jobs
33
describe the level of challenge that people high in need for achievement prefer
- prefer moderate levels of challenge (not too high or too low)
- obtain satisfaction from accomplishing a task or from anticipation of accomplishing a task
- motivated to do better than others (not satisfying if it is impossible to accomplish because no one will do well, not satisfying if too easy because then everyone does well)
34
summarize the three main characteristics of people high in need for achievement
- prefer activities that provide some (but not too much) challenge
- enjoy tasks in which they are personally responsible for the outcome
- prefer tasks for which feedback on their performance is available
35
what are some outcomes associated with a high need for achievement
- starting and managing a small business
- more attraction to business occupations
- adopting innovative practices that improve rates of production
- self-employment
- more deliberate pursuit for good grades
- more problem-solving after being laid off
- drawn to careers which more potential risk/uncertainty and where emergency problem-solving is required
36
describe some cultural differences in need for achievement
- in N.A many students have high need to achieve
- in Papua New Guinea, school is noncompetitive and it is important for everyone to do well (doing better than others is associated with vanity)
37
what are intrinsically motivated behaviours
- largely self-determined based on inherent satisfactions directly associated with behaviours themselves (enjoyment, interest)
- not contingent on reinforcements in environment
38
what are extrinsically motivated behaviours
- performed for more instrumental reasons
- based on some environmental contingency
- e.g. receiving a reward, avoiding punishment/guilt
39
describe the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in academic success
previous research demonstrated intrinsic motivation as a stronger predictor
40
what is acculturation
process by which individuals adopt new customs and behaviours upon moving to a new country or cultural context
41
what were the effects found of acculturation on intrinsic/extrinsic motivation
- looked at Canada (individualistic) vs India (collectivistic)
- Indian-Canadian adolescents were more intrinsically motivated by their Indian counterparts
- more individualistic Canadian culture may contribute to less socially dependent motivation
- academic achievement was higher in Indian-Canadian students --> intrinsic motivation = success
- intrinsic motivation predicts, especially in individualistic cultures
42
describe some sex differences in need for achievement
- most research has been done in males
- men and women are similar in preference for moderate challenge, personal responsibility for outcomes and tasks with feedback
- differences in life outcomes predicted and childhood experiences
43
describe what research has shown about women's different achievement trajectories depending on family and work goals
- depends on whether they value having family or having both family and work-related goals
- work + family = achievement is associated with better grades, completing university and starting a family later
- family only = achievement with regards to dating/relationships
44
describe what research has shown about women's achievement needs depending on childhood experiences
- high achievement need is associated with a stressful/difficult early family life
- mothers of girls high in achievement need were critical of daughters, aggressive and competitive, less nurturant and affectionate
- mothers of males high in achievement = high parental support and care
45
describe sex differences in competitive achievement settings
- when given the choice between a tournament setting or playing individually, there are sex differences
- 35% of women chose tournament
- 75% of men chose tournament
- even though both of them perform equally in a tournament setting
- women may be more selective in how they express their achievement strivings
46
describe how independence training promotes high achievement motivation in children
- independence training = promotion of autonomy and independence in children
- e.g. child taught to feed self, toilet trained earlier
- promotes sense of mastery and confidence
47
describe how setting challenging standards for children promotes high achievement motivation
- if expectations achieve child's abilities they will give up
- challenging children, supporting them through the process and rewarding them when goal is attained promotes achievement motivation
48
what are five ways to raise high need for achievement in children
- set tough but realistic standards
- applaud successes and celebrate accomplishments
- acknowledge but don't dwell on failures (share they they are part of learning)
- avoid instilling fear of failure (emphasize motive to succeed)
- stress effort over ability (you can do it if you really try)
49
describe how attachment style influences levels of achievement motivation in children
- secure attachment = higher level of adult achievement motivation
- more likely to explore environments and thus learn new skills
50
describe how beliefs people have about their abilities and competencies affects the achievement motivation
- most adaptive belief system is that abilities are not fixed --> can be developed through effort
- people who believe abilities are fixed will have a low need for achievement
- one's true potential is realized through sustained effort
51
what is the need for power
- readiness or preference for having an impact on other people
- impress, influence or control others
- be recognized by others for their power-oriented actions
- most notably achieve impact through forceful actions towards/against others, strong efforts to control others, displays of valued personal possessions
- want others to react to them
52
what are people high in need for power faster at recognizing
- faster at recognizing facial expressions of emotions in others
- desire to impact others --> assess this impact by looking at others' responses to them
53
what does need for power energize and how is this most commonly measured
- energizing and directs behaviour when the person is in opportune situations for exerting power
- TAT has been predominant assessment tool (e.g. describing strong/vigorous actions, behaviours that bring about strong reactions from others, etc.)
54
what is need for power correlated with
- having arguments with others
- being elected to student office in university
- taking larger risks in gambling situations
- being assertive and active in small groups
- acquiring prestige possessions (e.g. sports cars)
55
what are people high in need for power interested in
- control of situations and other people
- men high in nPow want romantic partner to be under their control and dependent on them, more likely to abuse partners
- people high in nPow prefer friends who are not well known or popular (these people don't threaten their prestige/status)
56
are there sex differences in average levels of need for power
- no sex differences in average levels, or in the kinds of situations that arouse power motive
- no differences in life outcomes associated with nPow (e.g. social power, power-related careers)
- in high nPow men (not women): aggressive and impulsive behaviours, dissatisfying dating relationships, arguments, divorce, sexual exploitation, more frequent sexual partners, engage in sex earlier, alcohol abuse
57
what has responsibility training been found to decrease
- profligate impulse behaviours (e.g. drinking, aggression, sexual exploitation)
- e.g. taking care of younger siblings, having own children
- need for power is not associated with impulsive behaviour in those who have had responsibility training
58
what is power stress
- when high nPow people do not get their way or power is challenged/blocked --> strong stress responses
- causes vulnerability to ailments and diseases, lowered immune function, high blood pressure/hypertension, greater muscle tension
59
describe the relationship found between need for power and war/peace
- looked at content of speeches of politicians
- power imagery was high in speeches around when wars started --> wars ended when power imagery decreased
- power motive needs to be balanced by affiliation and achievement
60
how do people respond to power imagery
- respond with power images of their own
- this is how conflicts might escalate to violence
- compromises are negatively associated with power motives
61
describe the need for intimacy
- recurrent preference or readiness for warm, close and communicative interaction with others
- want more intimacy and meaningful human contact in day-to-day lives
62
what four things have people high in need for intimacy been found to do
- spend more time during day thinking about relationships
- report more pleasant emotions when they are around others
- smile, laugh, and make eye contact
- start up conversations more frequently and write more letters
63
are people high in need for intimacy extraverted?
- not necessarily loud and outgoing
- want fewer really good friends
- sincere and meaningful conversations rather than wild parties
- one-on-one interactions rather than group ones
- discuss intimate and personal topics (feelings, hopes, desires)
64
what is high need for intimacy associated with
- overall adjustment in school (satisfying job and family life, stress coping, etc.)
- women: happiness, satisfaction in life
- men: less strain in life
- women have higher need for intimacy than men, on average
65
describe the humanistic approach to motivation (3 main parts)
- emphasizes conscious awareness of needs, choice, and personal responsibility in creating meaningful/satisfying life
- emphasis on human need for growth and realization of full potential --> human nature is positive and life-affirming
- views much of motivation as based on need to grow (to become who one is meant to be)
66
what are some indications of a midlife crisis of responsibility for one's life (humanistic approach)
- career changes
- relationship breakups
- moves across country
- other drastic obstacles
67
describe the different approaches to human nature that humanistic vs psychoanalytic perspectives take
- psychoanalytic approach takes pessimistic view of human nature --> humans have primitive and destructive instincts
- humanistic approach takes optimistic view of human nature --> stresses process os positive growth toward desired or idealized human potential --> summed up in self-actualization motive
68
describe the different views of motivation that psychoanalysis versus humanistic psychology takes
- humanistic views motivation as based on need to grow --> need to self-actualize is NOT based on deficiency (motive to develop, flourish, etc.)
- psychoanalytic viewpoints believe motivation comes from a specific deficit (lack of something) --> the "big three" motives are all deficit-based
69
list the five levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs (bottom to top)
- physiological (survival needs: food, water, sex)
- safety (shelter, security)
- belongingness (families, friends, clubs, teams)
- esteem (from others and self)
- self-actualization
--> note: typically must satisfy lower needs before higher needs, & lower needs in hierarchy are more powerful when not satisfied
70
what are signs that our need for belongingness are not satisfied
- loneliness, alienation
- some argue this is more common in modern (fewer ready-made groups)
71
why is our need for belongingness so strong
- in evolutionary past, belonging to large social group was essential to survival
- e.g. hunting in groups, moving around in groups
- sharing workload, protecting one another
72
what are the two types of esteem
- esteem from others --> want to be respected for our achievements and abilities
- self esteem (this depends on esteem from others) --> want to feel good about ourselves
73
describe the need for self-actualization
- need to develop one's potential, become the person one was meant to be
- living according to "true self"
- self-actualizers just know who they are and have few doubts about what direction they need to take
74
what is associated with being high in self-actualization
- score higher on measures of general wellbeing
- tend to have "peak experiences", or flow
75
what is self-transcendence (Maslow)
people only fully achieve self-actualization by also giving self to higher goal that extends beyond themselves (e.g. spirituality, altruism) --> self-transcendence is the ultimate expression of self
76
what are the two reasons why self-transcendence is often overlooked in Maslow's work
- he had insufficient time to publicize the amendment to the hierarchy himself
- there is an unwillingness in society to give credit to spirituality
77
describe a "peak experience" (Maslow)
- momentary feeling of extreme wonder, awe, vision, etc.
- accompanied by feelings of euphoria, harmonization, deep sense of meaning/purpose, interconnectedness
- disorientation in space/time
- provide insight about one's true self and inner potential
- usually have a spiritual or religious quality
- associated with good psychological health
78
what is flow
- subjective state when one is completely involved in something --> forget time, fatigue and anything else except for the activity
- functioning at fullest capacity
- neither under-stimulated or overstimulated
- more common when there is balance between person's skills and challenges of situation, clear goal, immediate feedback on how one is doing
- different from peak experience in the sense that it is only experienced when actively doing an activity (cannot be experienced when doing something passive)
79
what is autotelic personality
someone who tends to enjoy life and does things for their own sake (rather than to achieve a later goal) --> continue to seek out flow states in activities and work
80
describe the study that showed that lower-level needs are stronger than higher-level needs when deprived
- presented subjects with a variety of goals (e.g. having enough to eat, feeling safe, etc.)
- asked how good people would feel if they attained them
- negative reactions strongest when thought about not attaining lower goals
- positive responses highest when contemplating attainment of goals higher in the hierarchy
- note: these findings are not the same when assessing "happiness"
81
describe the adaptation of Maslow's hierarchy for collectivist cultures
- cultures put greater importance on collective wellbeing and achievement
- belonging needs are at bottom of hierarchy (most pressing)
- no esteem needs (these are more important in individualist cultures)
82
describe the reformulation of Maslow's hierarchy to merge concepts from evolutionary psychology
- at bottom: basic needs for physiological, safety, affiliation and esteem --> important for survival
- reproductive needs next: mate acquisition, mate retention, parenting
- parenting is at top of model --> ensuring one's genes into future generations
- self-actualization is left out of this model
83
what are some critiques of the evolutionary revision of Maslow's hierarchy
- not human-centred (applies to animals too)
- some argue self-actualization IS evolutionarily important
- purpose in life is missing
- some argue status-seeking is one of the most pressing motivations (left out of model)
84
what are some characteristics of self-actualizing people (15 total)
- efficient perceptions of reality
- acceptance of themselves, others, and nature/fate
- spontaneity
- problem focus (philosophical/ethical problems)
- affinity for solitude
- independence from culture/environment
- continued freshness of appreciation
- more frequent peak experiences
- genuine desire to help human race
- deep ties with fewer people
- democratic values
- ability to discriminate between means and ends
- philosophical sense of humour
- creativity
- resistance to enculturation
85
what have people high in self-actualization been found to be motivated by
- more motivated by growth, exploration, love of humanity
- less motivated to fulfill deficiencies in basic needs
86
what do people high in self-actualization score higher in
higher wellbeing, life satisfaction, positive relations, environmental mastery, purpose in life
87
how do self-actualizers score on the big 5
high conscientiousness, openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability
88
what did Carl Rogers's research focus on
- ways to foster and attain self-actualization
- developed client/person-centred therapy
- believed people were basically good and human nature was positive
- nature human state is to be fully functioning (people stall when they aren't on this route)
- primary motive in life is to self actualize
89
describe Rogers' notion of the fully functioning person
- person on way to self-actualization
- not yet self-actualized, but not blocked in moving towards this goal
90
what are the 5 characteristics of a fully functioning person (Rogers)
- open to new experiences
- enjoy diversity and novelty in daily life
- centred in present (not dwelling on regrets)
- trust themselves
- unconventional
91
positive regard (Rogers)
- all children are born wanting to be loved and accepted by parents and others
- parents frequently make positive regard contingent on conditions
92
conditions of worth (Rogers)
- requirements set forth by parents or significant others for earning their positive regard
- children may become preoccupied with living. up to these conditions rather than discovering what makes them happy
93
conditional positive regard
- positive regard when it must be earned by meeting certain conditions
- too much of this in children can lead them to lose touch with their own desires/wants --> begin living to please others, moving them away from being fully functioning
- hide shortcomings and struggles --> act to make others happy at expense of own happiness
94
unconditional positive regard (Rogers)
- positive regard with no strings attached --> given freely and liberally
- parents/significant others accept person without conditions
- parents need to show children this, even when providing discipline/guidance (e.g. saying action is bad, but not that they are bad)
95
positive self-regard (Rogers)
- with enough unconditional positive regard, children learn to accept experiences
- free to accept self (even own weaknesses and shortcomings)
- trust self, follow own interests, rely on feelings to guide them to do the right thing
96
describe anxiety according to Rogers
- result of having an experience that does not fit with one's self-conception
- people not moving forward in terms of self-actualization experience episodes of anxiety
- people need to defend themselves against anxiety to reduce discrepancy between self-concept and experiences
- fully functioning = change self-concept to incorporate the experience
97
according to Rogers, what is a less functional way to deal with anxiety
- defence mechanism of distortion
- modify experience rather than self-image to reduce threat (e.g. the teacher was unfair)
98
what are the five components of emotional intelligence
- ability to know one's own emotions
- ability to regulate emotions
- ability to motivate oneself
- ability to know how others are feeling
- ability to influence how others are feeling
99
what is emotional intelligence important for
self actualization
100
describe the goal of client-centred therapy
- client is never offered an interpretation of their problem or given any direction about what course of action to take
- therapist tries to create the right conditions in which the client can change and grow
101
what are the three core conditions for client-centred therapy
- atmosphere of genuine acceptance on the part of the therapist
- unconditional positive regard for client
- empathic understanding
102
what is empathy (Rogers)
understanding the other person from their point of view --> conveyed by restating the content and feelings for the client (rather than interpreting what they said)
103
is empathy heritable
no --> empathy can be taught effectively, but some are better than others (depends on their situational factors and motivations)
104
why is Rogers's theory important to personality psychology
- theory concerns development of self over lifespan
- includes specific processes that can interrupt or facilitate that development
- new perspective on importance of early experiences
- assigns important role to anxiety
- system of psychotherapy to help people achieve full potential
