305 Lecture 1 & 2 Flashcards
What is personality
the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that is organized and relatively enduring, and that influences interaction with, and adaptations to, the environment (intrapsychic, physical, and social environment)
What is a trait
how people are alike or unalike along a spectrum
what is a mechanism
and information processing system and interaction with the world (e.g. reactivity to adversity)
describe the interaction between personality and situations
personality is within an individual and separate from situations, but gets carried into situations
describe how personality is “organized”
traits work and function together to allow you to function as a person
describe what disorganization in personality looks like
personality disorders, which disrupt daily functioning and interactions with others
describe how personality is enduring
it is stable through time, which is why it matters –> if we didn’t have an enduring personality, we will always be guided by the situations we are in
why is personality important
it can predict life outcomes, emotions, needs, cognitions, and behaviours in social environments –> influences interactions with (and adaptations to) the environment, especially the social environment
describe some things that are not synonymous with personality
attitudes, morals/values/beliefs, abilities, physical characteristics, social categories –> these things can change and thus aren’t enduring –> however, personality does interact with these things and can even be the underlying cause of these things (e.g. if you have higher openness, you are more likely to be liberal)
what are the three levels of analysis of personality
human nature, individual and group differences, and individual uniqueness
what does the human nature analysis of personality investigate
how we are like ALL others –> traits and mechanisms of personality that are typical of our species and possessed by nearly everyone (e.g. we are motivated to engage in and maintain social relationships, we might all have some degree of narcissism and egocentrism)
what does the individual and group differences analysis of personality investigate
how we are like SOME others –> individual differences looks at some we are like some others, while group differences looks at home people in one group differ from people in another group
what are individual differences
the ways in which each person is like some other people (e.g. extraverts, sensation-seekers, high self-esteem people) –> examined using the big 5 traits
what are group differences
the ways in which people of one group differ from people in another group (e.g. cultural differences, age differences, gender differences) –> how groups are comparable along average traits (this loses individual differences within a group)
when might an attitude be considered a personality trait
if it is a stable attitude over time (e.g. I love animals)
describe some group differences in individualism and collectivism
- Canada and the US are very individualist cultures –> describe themselves in positive terms only (“self-enhancement”)
- Japan is collectivist and they describe themselves with a balance of positive and negative terms
what does the individual uniqueness analysis of personality investigate
how we are like NO others –> every individual has personal and unique qualities not shared by any other person in the world
how does uniqueness exist in individuals
in the sum of our traits and mechanisms, in their combination and interactions (no one has these same combinations/interactions) and in our stories
how does personality affect others
some expressions of uniqueness can have consequences to others and the world (e.g. Putin)
what does the study of personality tell us
who is more likely to experience certain life outcomes
what is the Rorschach inkblot test
projective test that shows participants ambiguous stimuli and asks them to describe what they see –> thought that this stimuli would reveal more of an individual’s personality because the situation does not act as a force
what are the two types of personality assessment methods
- descriptive research –> describing personality (can be done even with one person)
- explanatory research –> discovering relationships between traits of between personality and other phenomena (done in a sample)
what are the four types of descriptive research
- self-reports (surveys; S-data)
- observer-reports (O-data)
- test-data (T-data)
- life history/life-outcome data (L-data)
what are the three common concerns in descriptive research
reliability, validity, and generalizability
what is S-data and what are some limitations of this approach
tries to understand what is doing on inside a person’s head –> socially desirable responding, worried about judgement from the administrator
what is O-data and what is a limitation of this approach
people known to an individual rate them, or someone trained can rate an individual –> only so much information is observable
what is T-data, and what is a limitation of this approach
people are placed into a standardized situation that is meant to elicit behaviour –> participants can sometimes pick up on (or think that they have picked up on) what is being tested, and change their behaviour accordingly
what is L-data
uses publicly available data (e.g. number of speeding tickets, marriages, divorces, etc.)
describe some possible O-data on how people would describe the personalities based on the appearance of peoples’ rooms
some might note that the messier room belongs to someone creative, disorganized, extraverted, more neurotic (anxious/depressed), while others might see the cleaner room as belonging to someone organized, neurotic
describe the two types of experimental methods
true experiments (manipulate IV, random assignment) and quasi-experiments (incomplete randomization)
what are the two types of explanatory research
experimental methods and correlational studies
what are some examples of correlational study designs
cross-sectional and longitudinal studies –> these are used heavily in personality research
what does it mean if a result is significant
the observation is likely caused by something other than random chance (probably an accurate depiction of human behaviour)
what is replication
the process of repeating a study in a different population/context –> key to gaining confidence in findings
what is a meta-analysis
the statistical procedure for combining data from multiple studies
what are the two main ways of gaining consensus in research
replication and meta analysis
what are the two steps to performing a meta analysis and drawing conclusions from it
- data are standardized across studies (chosen with strict inclusion criteria) and are compared/summarized
- when the effect size of a particular relationship or phenomenon is consistent across studies, we gain confidence in the observation
what does WEIRD stand for
western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic –> most published studies are based on WEIRD populations (e.g. ~70% come from the US), and thus research might only be about western society
describe an area of personality research that is different in non-WEIRD populations
self-esteem manifests and develops differently in different cultures
what are case studies
an in-depth examination of the life of one person –> descriptive, exploratory or explanatory in nature, but unethical to clinically diagnose these people unless qualified –> tends to be an analysis of behaviour to give evidence of personality traits
what are traits
- the basic building blocks of personality; universal dimensions with individual differences –> exist in all individuals regardless of culture
- almost any adjective (or sometimes noun) that describes the way some people are and others are not
describe the approach that states that traits are “internal causal properties”
traits are within an individual and have an effect (i.e. behaviour is, in part, due to this trait) –> this approach is most commonly taken in personality psychology
describe the approach that states that traits are “descriptive summaries of behaviour”
no assumptions are made about traits from observable behaviour (e.g. act frequency approach)–> behaviour could be due to personality OR the situation unless the behaviour is very stable over time
describe the nature of a survey taking the act frequency approach to studying personality
it asks questions both about observable behaviours and internal feelings
how can we formulate which personality traits are most important
- more common = more important
- those that account for individual differences
- those that are consequential (have an effect)
- account for variance in differences
what are the three approaches to determining which traits are most important
- lexical approach
- statistical approach
- theoretical approach
what is the lexical hypothesis
all important individual differences have become encoding within language over time, because trait terms are important for communication –> e.g. there are many available terms for extraversion (bubbly, social, etc.)
according to the lexical approach, what are the two criteria for identifying important traits
- synonym frequency (there are many words for it)
- cross-culture universality (people everywhere will have words for it)
give an example of taking the lexical approach to defining Steve job’s personality
we can gather a list of different traits that describe Steve, then decide on three overarching traits based on synonym frequencies
describe the statistical approach to determining traits
starts with a large, diverse pool of personality items (as obtained by the lexical approach) and then applies statistical methods to organize and categorize items based on their covariance (broad vs narrow traits) –> primarily uses factor analysis
what is factor analysis (in the statistical approach to studying traits)
identifies groups of items that covary or “go together” but tend not covary with other groups of items –> reveals underlying factors
describe the theoretical approach to studying traits
starts with a theoretical framework which determines which variables or traits are important to study (e.g. Freud’s personality types based on psychosexual fixations during childhood development)
what is a limitation of the lexical/statistical approaches to studying traits
they often leave out important facets of personality like neuroticism (because words for these traits are lacking) –> e.g. Myers-Briggs 16 personalities does not include neuroticism
what are the five most widely endorsed trait taxonomies
- Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality
- Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory
- Wiggins interpersonal circumplex
- five-factor model of personality (‘big 5’)
- HEXACO model of personality
what are three less commonly endorsed trait taxonomies
- the high five
- the dark tetrad
- the light triad
who was Hans Eysenck
one of the most influential personality psychologists ever, but was also involved in research about genetic foundations of IQ –> made the hierarchical model of personality
describe the two criteria for Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality
- traits must be heritable (based in biology)
- traits must have a psychophysiological foundation
what are the three broad traits defined by Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality
extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism
describe the nature of each of the broad traits defined by Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality
each broad trait (extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism) consists of narrow traits, habitual actions, and specific actions
describe how Eysenck’s hierarchical model would describe the broad trait “extraversion”
the broad trait “extraversion” consists of:
- narrow traits (e.g. sociable)
- habitual actions (e.g. goes out to an event each weekend)
- specific actions (e.g. started a conversation in a group)
–> can’t make assumptions based on one specific event, habitual actions increases our confidence about assigned traits
describe “extraversion” in Eysenck’s hierarchical model
extraversion has a “warmth” side (e.g. lively, sociable, surgent) and a “dominant” side (assertive, active) –> can be one or the other, or both
describe the psychophysiological basis of extraversion (according to Eysenck’s model)
introverts have higher cortical and nervous system arousal to moderate levels of stimulation (feel tired after a socially busy day) –> thicker PFCs (more planning, thinking things through) and more blood flow to the brain when stimulated, which uses up more energy
describe “neuroticism” in Eysenck’s hierarchical model
characterized by emotional instability, sensitivity, greater arousability of the nervous system –> some facets of this trait overlap with introversion, but it is more about a response to negative stimuli (note: sometimes it is hard to discriminate between neurotic traits and anxiety disorders)
describe the psychophysiological basis of neuroticism (according to Eysenck’s model)
neuroticism is associated with greater reactivity (physiologically and psychologically) to stress and negative stimuli
what is the result of neuroticism coupled with conscientiousness
people with N + C live longer because they are conscientious of the fact that they have neurotic traits, and thus keep them in check
what are some characteristics of extraversion
sociable, lively, active, assertive, carefree, dominant, surgent, venturesome, sensation-seeking
what are some characteristics of neuroticism
anxious, depressed, tense, irrational, shy, moody, emotional, low self-esteem, guilt-feelings
describe “psychoticism” in Eysenck’s hierarchical model
aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive, unempathetic, creative, antisocial, tough-minded –> overlaps with narcissism, can be socially disruptive and is associated with incarceration (more impulsivity = less empathetic) –> all of the associated traits tend towards being anti-social
define “antisocial”
socially disruptive, causing harm to and/or violating the rights of others (NOT social avoidance)
describe the psychophysiological basis of psychoticism (according to Eysenck’s model)
higher testosterone and lower monoamine oxidase (MAO - NT regulator) –> MAO regulates and balances NTs, so without them there is excess norepinephrine and dopamine, leading to impulsivity
describe how Jobs scores on traits of psychoticism
- not so much “antisocial” but he is creative, tough-minded, impersonal, egocentric, and narcissistic
- he wouldn’t let people write on the board, he made his employees work all night, denied paternity of first biological daughter
describe Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory
- based on brain research with animals
- proposed model of human personality involving two hypothesized biological systems in the brain
- one system of reward, one system of punishment –> people differ from each other in the relative sensitivity of each of these systems
what are the two systems of Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory
- one responsive to reward
- one responsive to punishment
- those more sensitive to reward are “impulsive” while those more sensitive to punishment are “anxious”
what was Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory initially offered as
an alternative to Eysenck’s theory, but then they realized there were many similarities between the two theories
what are the three systems of Gray’s Revised Theory
the behavioural activation system (BAS), the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) and the behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
what is the behavioural activation system (BAS)
- part of Gray’s revised theory
- brain system responsive to reward
- motivates approach behaviours
what does high BAS activity mean
- novelty seeking
- positive emotion
- extraversion
what brain systems are involved in the BAS
thalamus, cerebral cortex, striatum
what is the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS)
- part of Gray’s revised theory
- brain system responsive to negative (threatening/punishing) stimuli
- mediates the emotion of fear
what does high FFFS activity mean
- fear-proneness
- avoidance behaviours
- phobias
what brain areas are involved in the FFFS
amygdala, anterior cingulate, hypothalamus
what is the behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
- part of Gray’s revised theory
- brain system involved in resolving goal conflict
- characterized by anxiety and rumination in order to assess risk
what does high BIS activity mean
- risk aversion
- neuroticism
what brain regions are involved in the BIS
amygdala, posterior cingulate, hippocampus
which system in Gray’s revised theory is most closely related to neuroticism
the BIS
what is the difference between the FFFS and BIS of Gray’s revised theory
there is a lot of overlap between the two and little distinction
What is another word for the interpersonal circumplex model
the circumplex model of personality
describe the circumplex model of personality
primarily concerned with interpersonal traits and interactions between people involving social exchanges (effects between two+ people, consequences to social exchanges)
according to the circumplex model, what are the two resources of social exchange
- love (emotional component, aka communion)
- status (social component, aka agency)
describe the love component of the circumplex model
coldness and lack of emotion vs love
describe the status component of the circumplex model
dominant vs submission, loss vs gain of power
what theory defines the axes of the wiggins circumplex
the interpersonal circumplex (or circumplex model of personality) –> y axis is status, x axis is love
what are the four different personalities defined by the Wiggins circumplex
- arrogant-calculating (low love, high status)
- gregatious-extraverted (high love, high status)
- aloof-introverted (low love, low status)
- unassuming-ingenuous (high love, low status)
describe the dimension of “love” on the Wiggins Circumplex model
cold-hearted (hostility) vs warm-agreeable (nurturance)
describe the dimension of “status” on the Wiggins Circumplex model
unassured-submissive vs assured-dominant
what are some limitations of the Wiggins Circumplex model of personality
- doesn’t include all narrow traits of extraversion
- introversion seems to be represented as being “cold-hearted”, which seems more like a psychotic trait
according to the Wiggins circumplex, what should and should not be correlated
- opposing traits (e.g. introversion vs extraversion) should be negatively correlated
- two different traits (e.g. love and status) should be completely unrelated
what trait of the Wiggins circumplex is most like psychoticism
arrogant-calculating (low love, high status) –> this is where Steve Jobs sits
describe where Whitney Houston sits of the Wiggins circumplex
she is on the high end of the “love” dimension, but there are inconsistent ratings about whether she is extraverted or introverted (extraversion might have been a facade because of cognitive dissonance)
what are the “big two” traits
agency and communion –> describes the two primary modes of existence or motives of behaviour
what is “agency” in the big two
- competence, assertiveness
- refers to existence of an organism as an individual
- “getting ahead” as an individual
- goal pursuit
what is “communion” in the big two
- warmth (agreeableness), morality
- refers to participation of an individual in a larger organism
- “getting along” and forming bonds with others
describe the “big two” model of personality
- insightful constructs on motives of human behaviour, modes or existence, or “traits”
- seen in numerous domains of human behaviour/experience (manifests in lots of research areas)
- evolutionarily relevant
what is the “big two” model similar to (four things)
- individualism vs collectivism, which has both personal and cultural relevance
- agreeableness (do you focus on yourself or others)
- masculinity vs femininity (our implicit associations with these things)
- need for power vs need for intimacy
what is the healthiest expression according to the “big two” model
high agency AND high communion
according to the “big two” model, what are some unhealthy personality expressions
- extreme agency (and suppressed communion) = “unmitigated agency” which is associated with being antisocial, narcissistic, and toxic masculinity
- extreme communion = “untimitigated communion” which is associated with being submissive and dependent
what is associated with both agency and communion
achievement
what is the difference between the five factor model and the big five model
they are the same, they just have slightly different applications, measures, terminology, and narrow traits
what is the five factor model (the big five)
leading personality taxonomy today –> five broad traits or factors based on lexical and statistical approaches
list and describe the five personality factors of the big five model
- extraversion (surgency)
- neuroticism (emotional stability)
- conscientiousness (dependability)
- agreeableness
- openness to experience (openness, intellect, culture, respect for art)
what is confusing about different ways of framing “neuroticism” of the big five model
some frame it in positive terms (“emotional stability), which is confusing because high neuroticism actually means low emotional stability
what empirical evidence is there for the five factor model
it has been independently replicated in numerous studies using English language trait words as items, in many countries/cultures, in many different languages, and in many different formats (single adjectives, T/F questions, etc.)
describe neuroticism (big five)
individuals high in neuroticism are prone to negative emotions (anxiety, depression, anger) rather than being emotionally resilient –> many internalized emotions, reactive to things, sensitive
what are the six narrow traits (facets) of neuroticism
- anxiety (worry about things)
- depression (feeling down or depressed)
- self-consciousness (easily intimidated, embarrassed)
- vulnerability (panic easily, emotionally reactive)
- anger/hostility (gets angry or frustrated easily)
- impulsiveness (unable to resist temptations)
describe extraversion (big five)
extraverted individuals are assertive and sociable, rather than quiet and reserved –> enjoy engaging with the external world, warmth and/or dominance, less frequently overwhelmed, more engagement in social activity, different threshold of stimulation
what are some benefits and downfalls or extraversion
extraverted people tend to live longer on average and have many social benefits, but they are more likely to get hurt or get themselves in peer pressuring situations
what are the six narrow traits (facets) of extraversion
- gregariousness (enjoy company, big crowds)
- warmth (genuinely like others, act positively to others)
- excitement seeking (seek out stimulation)
- positive emotions (happy enthusiastic, optimistic)
- activity level (active, busy, energetic)
- assertiveness (like to take charge, lead others)
describe openness to experience (big five)
open individuals have a broad range of interests, are sensitive to art and beauty, and prefer novelty to routine –> creativity, will purposely watch a movie to cry (open to feeling new emotions), liberalism
what is found in people who are low on openness to experience
they are resistant to change and thus have a higher fear response
what are the six narrow traits (facets) of openness to experience
- fantasy (vivid imagination, fantasy-prone)
- ideas (intellectual, enjoy exploring ideas and solving problems)
- aesthetics (appreciate art, draw to aesthetics)
- actions (prefer variety, open to new ways of doing things)
- feelings (open to new feelings and experiences)
- values (open minded values, open to changing, tend to vote liberal)
describe agreeableness (big five)
agreeable individuals are cooperative and polite rather than antagonistic and rude –> easy going, cooperative, pleasant, trust people and are trusted, sympathy (but not empathy), modesty, find faults in self and don’t need to be the centre of attention
what are the six narrow traits (facets) of agreeableness
- trust in others (believe others’ intentions are positive)
- altruism (selfless, generous, self-sacrificing)
- tender-mindedness (sensitive to others are sympathetic)
- compliance (cooperative (not submissive), avoid conflict)
- modesty (humble, not arrogant)
- straightforwardness (honest (but not brutally honest), direct, easy to satisfy)
what is characteristic of people who are very low in agreeableness
they are antagonistic (start conflicts, aggressive)
what are some downfalls of being high in agreeableness
naïve at high levels, might go along with things you shouldn’t
describe conscientiousness (big five)
conscientious individuals are task focused and orderly, rather than distractible and disorganized –> sense of responsibility to others, think things through, work hard, develop competence, social elements (norms and etiquette)
what are the six narrow traits (facets) of conscientiousness
- competence (confident in ability)
- self-discipline (persist at tasks until completed)
- achievement striving (work hard to achieve excellence)
- order (prefer order, structure, and organization)
- dutifulness (follow through with responsibilities)
- deliberation (think things through before acting)
what is characteristic of being low in conscientiousness
antisocial (not following social norms and etiquette)
what is characteristic of being extremely high in conscientiousness
obsessive compulsive personality disorder
describe how Steve Jobs might rate on the big five
- openness to experience (thinking outside of box)
- conscientiousness (persisting at task and striving for achivement)
- neuroticism? (impulsive and hostile but not anxious/depressed, coped well with adversity and was resilient)
describe how traits are organized in leading models of personality
- organized hierarchically
- broad traits (factors)
- narrow traits (traits, facets)
- specific behaviours, states and experiences
at which hierarchical level can we make the most accurate predictions of personality
narrow traits (facets) –> we lose too much information when just looking at broad traits, and also when we only look at specific behaviours/experiences (these could just be a one off)
describe some relationships that have been found between the big five and the big two
- communion is most related to high conscientiousness and agreeableness and low neuroticism
- agency is most related to extraversion and openness
describe the “high five” model of personality
frames personality traits in a positive way –> all are associated with social desirability, and people typically want to become these things
what are the five factors of the “high five” model of personality and what does each factor relate to on the big five model
- erudition (wise, visionary, cultured) –> high openness
- peace (patient tolerant) –> low neuroticism
- cheerfulness (pleasant, funny) –> high extraversion
- honesty (loyal, reliable, truthful) –> high agreeableness
- tenacity (dedicated, persistent) –> high conscientiousness
what does the HEXACO model add to the five factor model of personality
it adds “honesty-humility” to the model –> this was added by using a lexical approach with other languages
what are the six factors of the HEXACO model
- honesty-humility (modesty, etc.)
- emotionality (sentimentality, empathy, dependence) –> this is neuroticism revised
- extraversion
- agreeableness (low anger, not quick to temper) –> similar to neuroticism (low N)
- conscientiousness
- openness to experience
describe how “agreeableness” is different in the HEXACO model
it is associated with traits in low neuroticism (low anger, not quick to temper) –> does NOT include honesty, only cooperativeness
describe the honesty-humility factor of the HEXACO model
people high in H tend to be sincere, honest, faithful, loyal, modest and unassuming (rather than sly, deceitful, greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful and pompous)
what are the four facets of the honesty-humility factor of the HEXACO model
- sincerity (unwilling to lie or be manipulative in order to achieve a goal)
- fairness (unwilling to cheat, steal or take advantage of others)
- greed avoidance (less concerned with wealth and status)
- modesty (do not see themselves as better than others, do not believe they deserve special treatment) –> opposite of narcissism traits
what is the “honesty-humility” personality factor associated with
the “dark traits”, which are socially disruptive –> these traits are not addressed by the big five
describe the “dark traits”
conceptually distinct but overlapping socially aversive traits in the subclinical range –> associated with a callous-manipulative interpersonal style
what are the four “dark” traits
narcissism, psychopathy, sadism (or dispositional sadism) and machiavellianism –> these commonly co-occur, and all include assuming negative intents in others and tendencies to treat others negatively
what is machiavellianism
the tendency to be cunning, deceptive, exploitative and manipulative in interpersonal relationships (for self-interest) –> attributable to politicians and CEOs
what is narcissism
involves grandiosity, entitlement and superiority (which isn’t based on anything in particular) accompanied by frequent and excessive attention-seeking behaviour –> look in mirror more, post more selfies (especially gym selfies), not self-aware, sometimes a way of covering up insecurities
what is subclinical psychopathy
involves high impulsivity, low empathy and anxiety, and callous social attitudes –> associated with selfish, antisocial behaviour (or sometimes antisocial personality disorder), criminality, lack of fear/emotional response to behaviour
which of the dark traits is most variable in the population
subclinical psychopathology
what is dispositional sadism
the tendency to gain enjoyment from hurting others (either directly or vicariously) –> at the moderate level, this could look like laughing at people when they are hurt
what is characteristic of people who have any of the dark traits
they live by their own rules and don’t see themselves as a problem (especially narcissists)
what association has been found between dark personality traits and internet behaviour
people with the dark traits are more likely to engage in internet trolling (including trolling on dating apps) –> they use the internet more in general
why might people with the dark traits engage in more internet trolling behaviour
- anonymity of the internet
- publicity (gain an audience)
- large effect (greater reach)
what are some behaviours that the dark personality traits are associated with
- internet trolling behaviour
- bug killing
- conspiracy theories
- pandemic responses
why might people with dark personality traits engage in conspiracy theories
- think they are smarter/better than others
- view the world more negatively
- lack of trust in others
why might people with dark personality traits have poorer pandemic responses
they lack empathy for others
what big 5 traits do the dark traits correlate with
low agreeableness and conscientiousness (organized in their disorganized interactions with others)
what is a potential “treatment” option for the dark traits
psychadelics
what history do people with antisocial PD typically have
a history of childhood abuse
what two dark traits tend to go together
psychopathy and narcissism
what are some issues with calling personality traits “dark”
- us vs them mentality
- social isolation of people with these traits (might not seek help, might continue acting poorly because they know others don’t like them)
- reinforces racist stereotypes (dark = bad)
- academically, we should refrain from moral judgements of people
what are the three traits of the “light triad”
- kantianism
- humanism
- faith in humanity
(note: not much research on this yet)
what is kantianism (light triad)
treating people as means to themselves, as opposed to treating people as means to an end –> contrasts with Machiavelianism
what is humanism (light triad)
valuing the dignity and worth of every person
what is faith in humanity (light triad)
believing that people are fundamentally good
