Chapter 3: Traits and Trait Taxamonies Flashcards
What is the dispositional domain
aspects of personality that are stable over time, relatively consistent over situation, and make people different from each other –> the study of traits
define “disposition”
inherent tendency to behave in a specific way –> interchangeable with “trait”, the building blocks of personality
what are the major questions of psychologists working the dispositional domain (5 questions)
- how many personality traits exist
- what is the best taxonomy (classification system) for traits
- how can we best discover and measure traits
- how do personality traits develop
- how do traits interact with situations to produce behaviours
what are the three fundamental questions guiding those who study personality traits
- how should we conceptualize traits
- how can we identify which traits are the most important
- how can we formulate a comprehensive taxonomy of traits (system that includes all major traits of personality)
how are traits formally conceptualized and measured by most psychologists
dimensions on which people differ –> high, low or in the middle
describe the categorical approach to conceptualizing traits
describes people strictly in terms of a limited number of personality types (e.g. Myers-Briggs)
describe how traits are “internal”
individuals carry their desires, needs and wants from one situation to the next
describe how traits are “causal”
they explain the behaviour of the individuals who possess them –> influences external behaviour
give an example of how the internal disposition view of traits separates traits from external behaviours
an individual might have a desire to take charge in social situations, but may not always express this desire –> behavioural expression does not reflect internal feeling, but capacities remain present even if not expressed
describe why viewing traits as causal is useful
saying that Mona goes to parties because she is extraverted rules out other potential reasons for behaviour (e.g. friend drags her there) –> this prevents traits from merely being descriptive summaries of actual behaviour
describe the account of traits as purely descriptive summaries
these accounts make no assumptions about internality or causality (e.g. “jealousy” is a person’s expressed behaviour, but doesn’t assume what caused the jealousy –> could be rooted feelings of insecurity, or could just be the social situation) –> need to determine important individual differences to develop causal theories to explain them
what are the two basic formulations of traits
- traits as internal causal properties
- traits as purely descriptive summaries
what is the program used by those who endorse the descriptive summary formulation of traits
the ‘act frequency approach”
describe the act frequency approach
begins with the notion that traits are categories of acts (e.g. “impulsivity” has specific acts in its category)
describe how the act frequency approach might determine if a person is “dominant”
they might videotape a subject and their friends and count up how many times each person performed a dominant act –> if the subject did more dominant acts than their peers, they would be considered dominant
what are the three main elements of the act frequency approach
act nomination, prototypicality judgement, and the recording of act performance
what is act nomination
part of the act frequency approach –> procedure designed to identify which acts belong in which trait categories (e.g. acts under the category “impulsive” could be blurting out things without thinking, acting in the spur of the moment, etc.)
what is prototypicality judgement
part of the act frequency approach –> identifying which acts are most central to, or prototypical of, each trait category (e.g. “took charge of the meeting” is more prototypically dominant than “deliberately arrived late for the meeting”)
what is recording of act performance
part of the act frequency approach –> securing information on the actual performance of individuals in their daily lives (e.g. self report, observational measures)
what are the most common critiques of the act frequency approach (2 critiques)
- the technical implementations of the approach are unclear –> does not specify how much context should be included in the description of a trait-relevant act
- seems applicable to overt actions, but what about failures to act and covert acts that are not directly observable
what has the act frequency approach contributed to research (4 things)
- it has been helpful in making explicit the behavioural phenomena to which most trait terms refer, as behavioural expressions are the primary ways we learn about traits
- helpful in identifying behavioural regularities
- helpful in exploring the meaning of some traits that are hard to study (e.g. impulsivity)
- helpful in identifying cultural similarities and differences in the behavioural manifestations of traits
describe the study looking at the relationship between self-reported act performance and observer codings of the individuals’ actual behaviour
some acts (especially those reflecting extraversion and conscientiousness) showed high levels of self-observer agreement, while acts of agreeableness showed lower self-observer agreement –> the more observable the actions, the higher the agreement between self-report and observer codings
what has the act-frequency approach been found to predict
job success, salary, promotions in the workplace, social interaction habits, mate-guarding acts, violence in marital relationships
What are the three approaches to identification of the most important traits
lexical approach, statistical approach, and theoretical approach
describe the lexical approach to defining traits
all traits listed and defined in the dictionary form the basis of describing differences among people –> starting point is natural language (people naturally notice differences and invent words to reflect these differences in order to describe and communicate information about individuals)
What are the two important criteria for the lexical approach
- synonym frequency
- cross-cultural universality
what is a problem with the lexical strategy
personality is conveyed through different parts of speech (adjectives, nouns, adverbs) –> e.g. dozens of words for someone who thinks they know everything (know-it-all, smart-ass, wise-guy)
describe how the statistical approach is initiated
- start with a pool of personality items (trait words, questions about behaviour/experience/emotion)
- self-ratings based on a large collection of personality-relevant sentences
how is the statistical approach carried out
- assemble a diverse pool of personality items
- have large number of people rate themselves (or others) on the items
- use statistics to identify groups or clusters of items
what is factor analysis
identifies groups of items that covary (go together) but tend not to covary with other groups of items –> helps determine which personality variables have common property, and can reduce the number of personality factors into a smaller set (and things that don’t covary should be analyzed separately)
what are factor loadings
indexes of how much the variation in an item is “explained” by the factor –> indicate degree to which items correlate with the underlying factor
what is a limitation of the statistical approach
you only get out of it what you put into it –> if you leave behind an important trait, it won’t show up in the results
what is the theoretical approach
starts with a theory that determines which variables are important (e.g. the “oral personality” determined by Freud)
what is the theory of sociosexual orientation
men and women will pursue one of two alternative sexual relationship strategies:
- seeking a single committed relationship with monogamy and investment in children
- greater degree of promiscuity, more partner switching, less investment in children
–> tried to use this theory to determine important personality traits
what are the benefits of the theoretical approach
if we have a powerful theory, then it saves us from wandering aimlessly trying to find important personality factors –> theory charts the course to take
what are the drawbacks of the theoretical approach
the extent that the theory contains gaps or biases influences subsequent indication of important individual differences –> might be omissions and distortions
which approach to determining personality traits is most widely used
many use a combination of the three strategies –> might start with lexical, then apply factor analysis, which might lead to theories or give evidence for existing theories
describe Eysenck’s PEN theory
- strongly rooted in biology
- “super-trait” of psychoticism, extraversion-introversion, and neuroticism-emotional stability
- narrower traits and below each of the super traits
describe extraverts vs introverts according to Eysenck
sociable, active, lively, dominant (partying, playing jokes on people, big groups) vs quiet, aloof, distant (organized, small groups, reading)
describe neuroticism according to Eysenck
anxious, irritable, guilty, lacking self-esteem, tense, shy, moody –> trouble sleeping, psychosomatic symptoms, high emotional arousal, less forgiving
describe psychoticism according to Eysenck
aggressive, egocentric, creative, impulsive, lacking empathy, antisocial –> loner, cruel/inhumane, more likely in men
what are some findings in people high in psychoticism
- strong preference for violent films and rate them higher
- prefer unpleasant paintings
- correlated with Machiavellianism in men –> promiscuous and hostile sexual attitudes
- cynical about religion
- dangerous activities
what is some controversy over Eysenck’s defined traits
- some suggest that psychoticism is “antisocial personality” or “psychopathic personality”
- creativity is included as a narrow trait of P (artists were not “psychotic”, but struggled with mental illness)
describe the hierarchical structure of Eysenck’s system
- super-trait at the top
- narrower trait at the second level
- habitual acts at the third level
- specific acts at the lowest level
–> clusters of habitual acts become narrow traits, clusters of narrow traits become supertraits
what are the two aspects of the biological underpinnings of Eysenck’s model
- heritability
- identifiable physiological substrate (can identify properties in the brain and CNS that are part of the causal chain that produces personality traits)
what physiological substrate did Eysenck link neuroticism with
lability of the autonomic nervous system –> explains higher stress reactivity seen
what are some limitations of Eysenck’s model of personality
- many other personality traits show moderate heritability
- might have missed some important traits in his taxonomy
what are interpersonal traits
what people do to and with each other –> this is a key individual difference
what are some traits that specify individual differences (Wiggins Circumplex model)
- interpersonal traits (most preoccupied with this)
- temperament traits (nervousness, gloomy, sluggish, excitable)
- character traits (moral, principle, dishonest)
- material traits (miserly, stingy)
- attitude traits (pious, spiritual)
- mental traits (clever, logical, perceptive)
- physical traits (healthy, tough)
describe how Wiggins defined interpersonal traits
dyadic interactions that have clear-cut social (status) and emotional (love) consequences for both participants –> these traits correspond with agency and communion
what are the three advantages of the Wiggins circumplex
- provides an explicit definition of interpersonal behaviour –> possible to locate any transaction in which resources of status and love are exchanged within a specific area (giving vs denying love, granting or denying status)
- specifies the relationships between each trait and every other trait within the model (adjacency, bipolarity and orthogonality)
- alerts investigators to gaps in investigations of interpersonal behaviour
what are the three types of relationships specified by the Wiggins model
- adjacency (how close the traits are to each other in the circumplex) –> those next to each other within model are positively correlated
- bipolarity –> bipolar traits are located at opposite sides of circle and are negatively correlated with each other
- orthogonality (traits perpendicular) –> these traits are entirely unrelated to each other, which gives more precision in which traits are expressed
describe the adjacency of the Wiggins model
variables that are adjacent (next) to each other within the model are positively correlated –> gregarious-extraverted is correlated with warm-agreeable, arrogant-calculating is correlated with hostile-quarrelsome
describe the bipolarity of the Wiggins model
traits that are bipolar are located on opposite sides of the circle and are negatively correlate with each other –> dominant is opposite of submissive
describe the orthogonality of the Wiggins model
traits that are perpendicular to each other on the model (90 degree separation) are entirely unrelated (zero correlation0 –> dominance is orthogonal to agreeableness so they are uncorrelated, which means that dominance can be expressed in a quarrelsome OR agreeable manner
what has the Wiggins model been used to discover
- interpersonal sensitivities –> people don’t like others who have opposite personalities to them
- maladaptive aspects of interpersonal functioning –> those who are submissive and agreeable may be overly accommodating or passively aggressive
what is a limitation of the circumplex model
limited to two dimensions (other traits that aren’t mapped here also have important interpersonal consequences e.g. conscientiousness, neuroticism)
what are the four lists into which the big 5 traits can be divided between
- stable traits (secure, intelligent)
- temporary states, moods, activities (agitated, excited)
- social evaluations (charming, irritating)
- metaphorical, physical, and doubtful terms (prolific, lean)
describe Norman’s markers for extraversion
- talkative vs silent
- sociable vs reclusive
- adventurous vs cautious
- open vs secretive
describe Norman’s markers for agreeableness
- good-natured vs irritable
- cooperative vs negativistic
- mild/gentle vs headstrong
- not jealous vs jealous
describe Norman’s markers for conscientiousness
- responsible vs undependable
- scrupulous vs unscrupulous (detail oriented)
- persevering vs quitting
- fussy/tidy vs careless
describe Norman’s markers for emotional stability
- calm vs anxious
- composed vs excitable
- non hypochondriacal vs hypochondriacal
- poised vs nervous/tense
describe Norman’s markers for Culture (intellect, openness)
- intellectual vs unreflective/narrow
- artistic vs nonartistic
- imaginative vs simple/direct
- polished/refied vs crude/boorish
what are the two major ways that the Big Five has been measured in its modern form
- self-ratings of single-word trait adjectives (e.g. talkative, warm, organized, etc.)
- self-ratings of sentence items (e.g. my life is fast-paced)
what has Lewis found are the five single word trait adjectives associated with extraversion
talkative, extraverted, assertive, forward, outspoken VS shy, quiet, introverted, bashful, inhibited
what has Lewis found are the five single word trait adjectives associated with agreeableness
sympathetic, kind, warm, understanding, sincere VS unsympathetic, unkind, harsh, cruel
what has Lewis found are the five single word trait adjectives associated with conscientiousness
organized, neat, orderly, practical, prompt, meticulous VS disorganized, disorderly,
careless, sloppy, impractical
what has Lewis found are the three single word trait adjectives associated with emotional stability (low neuroticism)
calm, relaxed, stable VS moody, anxious, insecure.
what has Lewis found are the three single word trait adjectives associated with intellect (imagination, openness to experience)
creative, imaginative, intellectual VS uncreative, unimaginative, unintellectual.
what is the NEO-PI-R
NEO = neuroticism-extraversion-openness
PI = Personality inventory
R = Revised
–> includes questions about agreeableness and conscientiousness
what is the controversy over the identity of the fifth factor
there are differences between whether people label it as culture, intellect, intellectance, imagination, openness, openness to experience, fluid intelligence or tender-mindedness –> these differences are because different researchers start with different item pools to factor analyze, and then pick a term that best represents the words they’ve selected
what is the best way to resolve the controversial identity of the fifth factor
look across cultures and languages –> traits that emerge universally in different languages and cultures are more important –> unfortunately there are a lot of cross-cultural differences so it is hard to pin down the fifth factor
what is the cardinal feature of extraversion
social attention –> assume leadership positions (rather than being a wallflower), are bold with potential partners, higher positive affect, more involved in work, show commitment to work, tend to be more cooperative, physically stronger (more physical activity), prefer to spend leisure time on beaches (introverts prefer mountains)
what are some downsides of being an extravert
- drive fast, listen to music while driving –> tend to get into more car accidents
- less likely to save money for retirement
what is the cardinal feature of agreeableness
lets all get along –> use negotiation to resolve conflicts, withdraw from social conflict, avoid unharmonious situations, prosocial and empathic, help others in need, value prosocial behaviours in others (but also judge harshly those who commit antisocial acts), good at reading other people’s minds, more forgiving, often characteristic of politicians, not victimized by bullies
what is the opposite of agreeableness
aggressiveness –> hitting someone else in anger, blowing up when things don’t work, slam doors, yell, get into arguments, clench fists, raise voices, intentionally rude, damage peoples’s property, etc.
what is characteristic of conscientiousness individuals
industrious and get ahead –> hard work, punctuality, reliable behaviour, higher GPA, greater job satisfaction and security, more positive and committed social relationships
why are conscientious people more likely to succeed in work
- they do not procrastinate
- tend to be perfectionists (set high standards for themselves) –> high achievement motivation
- industrious –> put in long hours of diligent hard work needed to get ahead
what are some benefits of being conscientious
- less likely to gain weight in middle age (stick with plans for physical exercise)
- more passion and perseverance
- more volunteer work after retiring
what is low conscientiousness linked with
- risky sexual behaviours (failing to use condoms)
- more responsiveness to potential partners while already in a romantic relationship
- more frequent arrests
what is the downside of being too high in conscientiousness
substantial drop in psychological wellbeing when they are unemployed for extended periods of time
what are some things experienced by people high in neuroticism
- more fatigue throughout the day
- more grief and depression after death of loved one
- have dissociative experiences (e.g. can’t recall important life events)
- feel disconnected from life and other people
- suicidal ideation
- poorer physical health, more physical symptoms
- health impairing behaviours (drinking alcohol to forget about problems)
describe the interpersonal relationships of those high in neuroticism
- more sexual anxiety (e.g. worried about performance, fear engaging in sex)
- more likely to develop PTSD (e.g. if experience miscarriage)
describe the professional success of people high in neuroticism
- emotionally unstable people are thrown off by everyday stresses and strains
- emotional fatigue and burnout
- self-handicapping (create obstacles for successful achievement)
- outperform emotionally stable peers in office settings when in busier environment
what is characteristic of people who are high in openness to experience
- unsure about whether something was a dream or real, able to control contents of dreams, vivid dreams
- experimentation with new foods
- liking for novel experiences
- extramarital affairs
- less prejudice/stereotyping
- tattoos and piercings
- politically liberal
- excel in arts and show musical sophistication
- more cross-sex friendships on social media
what is a possible cause of greater openness to experiences
individual differences in processing information –> have difficulty ignoring previously experienced stimuli, open to receiving information from many sources, creative
what is characteristic of people low in openness to experience
- tunnel vision
- easily ignore competing stimuli
what personality variables are good grades best predicted by
high conscientiousness, high emotional stability –> less likely to procrastinate
what personality traits is academic dishonesty best predicted by
low conscientiousness and low agreeableness
what personality traits is educational attainment and earnings best predicted by
high emotional stability, openness and conscientiousness
what personality traits is risky sexual behaviour best predicted by
high extraversion & neuroticism, low conscientiousness & agreeableness
what personality traits is alcohol consumption best predicted by
high extraversion, low conscientiousness
what personality traits is SUD best predicted by
high neuroticism, low conscientiousness
what personality traits are eating disorders best predicted by
high neuroticism, low extraversion (in women)
what personality traits is pathological gambling best predicted by
combination of high neuroticism and low conscientiousness
what personality traits is aggression best predicted by
high neuroticism –> high agreeableness appears to cool these tempers
what personality traits is climbing mount everest best predicted by
extraverted, emotionally stable and psychotic people
what personality traits is happiness best predicted by
high extraversion, low neuroticism
what personality traits is volunteering best predicted by
combination of high agreeableness and extraversion
what personality traits is non-union members best predicted by
low extraversion, high neuroticism
what personality traits is academic dishonesty best predicted by
high agreeableness and high emotional stability
what personality traits is leadership effectiveness best predicted by
high extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability
what personality traits is propensity to have children best predicted by
high extraversion and emotional stability
what personality traits is favourable attitudes towards being touched by an intimate partner best predicted by
high agreeableness and high openness to experience
what other factors have been people argued are left out of the five factor model
- positive evaluation (outstanding vs ordinary)
- negative evaluation (awful vs decent)
- attractiveness
- some also argue for religiosity and spirituality
what has been a replicable sixth personality factor
- attractiveness –> physically attractive, sees self as attractive, charming, sexiness, alluring, seductive (correlates with extraversion)
- faithfulness was also added in a sexual take on this model (correlates with agreeableness and conscientiousness)
what 10 personality traits did Paunonen et al. define, which fall outside of the 5 factor model
conventionality, seductiveness, manipulativeness, thriftiness, humorousness, integrity, femininity, religiosity, risk-taking and egotism
what are personality-descriptive nouns
an approach to personality factors beyond on the big five:
- dumbbell
- babe/cutie
- philosopher
- lawbreaker
- joker
- jock
–> other models have also suggested honesty, humility and cleverness
describe some of the success in predicting important behavioural criteria from within the big five using facets of the big five
- need for achievement is a facet of conscientiousness
- need for understanding is a facet of openness
what are some criticisms of the big five model of personality
these factors fail to capture the underlying causal personality processes (i.e. the underlying psychological processes involved)
describe what is characteristic of people low on honesty-humility
egotistical, interpersonally exploitative, engage in antisocial/criminal activity, seek revenge on former romantic partners, narcissism, machiavellianism, subclinical psychopathy (dark tetrad)
what are the dark tetrad traits correlate with
- all associated with low agreeableness, low honesty-humility
- narcissism and subclinical psychopathy are associated with higher extraversion
- machiavellianism and subclinical psychopathy are associated with lower conscientiousness and high neuroticism
