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PSYC 315 Personality > Chapter 12: Cognitive Topics in Personality > Flashcards

Chapter 12: Cognitive Topics in Personality Flashcards

1
Q

describe the cognitive approaches to personality

A

how people differ from each other in processing information (e.g. different styles of perceiving and thinking and problem-solving)

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2
Q

what is thought sampling

A

people are asked what they thought about when they looked at a slide (usually an emotion-provoking scene)

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3
Q

personalizing cognition

A

scene prompts person to recall a similar life event from their own life

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4
Q

objectifying cognition

A

scene prompts person to recall objective facts

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5
Q

cognition

A

awareness and thinking, specific mental acts (perceiving, attending, interpreting, remembering, believing, judging, deciding, etc.) –> these mental behaviours add up to “information processing”

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6
Q

information processing

A

transformation of sensory input into mental representations, manipulation of such representations –> humans are not always accurate or unbiased when doing this (unlike computers)

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7
Q

what are three levels of cognition that are of interest to personality psychologists

A

perception, interpretation, and conscious goals

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8
Q

perception

A
  • process of imposing order on the information our sense organs take in
  • two people can look at the same situation and see very different things (e.g. the necker cube, Rorschach inkblots)
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9
Q

interpretation

A
  • making sense of (or explaining) various events in the world
  • giving meaning to events
  • e.g. thematic apperception test (TAT)
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10
Q

conscious goals

A
  • standards people develop for evaluating themselves and others
  • based on developed beliefs on what is important in life and which tasks are appropriate to pursue
  • might be age or culture specific
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11
Q

describe Witkin’s study of field dependence versus field independence

A
  • personality can be revealed through differences in how people perceive the environment
  • e.g. some people cannot look beyond details to get the big picture
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12
Q

Rod and Frame Test (RFT; Witkin)

A
  • some people rely on cues from environment surrounding the object, while others rely on bodily cues that tell them how they are oriented
  • participants sit in darkened room and watch glowing rod surrounded by a tilted square frame –> have to adjust the rod by turning the dial to rod is upright (have to ignore the tilt of the frame)
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13
Q

field dependent vs independent via the rod & frame test (Witkin)

A
  • field dependent = participant adjusts rod so it is leaning in the direction of the tilted frame (dependent on the visual field)
  • field independent = participant disregards external cues and uses information from body to adjust the rod to upright
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14
Q

what is a more efficient way to measure field dependence/independence (rather than the rod & frame test)

A
  • create a complex figure with many simple figures/shapes
  • ask people to find as many hidden figures within the larger drawing
  • e.g. Embedded Figures Test (EFT)
  • difficulty findings hidden figures = field dependent
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15
Q

what are differences in perception related to in personality functioning

A
  • consequences in education and interpersonal relations
  • field-independent students favour the natural sciences, math & engineering, while field-dependent favour social sciences and education
  • field dependent = rely on social information and frequently ask others their opinion (attentive to social cues, oriented towards others)
  • field independent = function autonomously, impersonal orientation towards others, prefer non-social situations
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16
Q

how do field dependent vs independent people respond in stimulus-rich environments

A
  • field independent = ignore distracting information and focus on important details (e.g. more accurately deciding when to shoot as a police officer, better at noticing and decoding facial expressions)
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17
Q

describe how field dependent vs independent students learn in a hypermedia-based environment

A
  • field-independent = learn more effectively in hypermedia based instructional environment
  • able to get points embedded within various sources of media faster
  • good at selective attention in stimulus-rich environments
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18
Q

how do field dependent vs independent people read emotional facial expressions

A

field-dependent people tend to be more socially oriented, but are actually not as good at interpreting facial expression as field-independent people are (but ONLY when the task was difficult e.g. only showed the eyes)

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19
Q

how do field dependent vs independent people learn languages

A

field independent people make better progress when learning a second language –> better at perceiving patterns within a complex stream of information

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20
Q

what are the pros and cons of being field dependent and independent

A
  • independent = analyze complex situations, extract information from background distractions, creative, BUT low on social skills
  • dependent = social skills, attentive to social contexts
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21
Q

How might people differ in their interpretations of different events (e.g. in trials)

A
  • did person intend to harm someone
  • did they plan the crime
  • do they appreciate the consequences of their behaviour
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22
Q

what was the core belief of Kelly’s theory

A
  • people are motivated to understand their circumstances and predict what will happen to them in the near future
  • psychoanalysis provides people with a system for explaining psychological problems
  • people want to find explanations and meanings for their life circumstances –> help them predict the future and anticipate what will happen next
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23
Q

how did Kelly view human nature

A
  • humans as scientists
  • engage in efforts to understand, predict and control events in their lives
  • people experience distress when they do not know why some event happened
  • employ constructs to interpret observations
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24
Q

define constructs (Kelly)

A
  • does not exist in itself, but instead summarizes a set of observations and conveys the meaning of those observations
  • e.g. gravity –> cannot show it, but can demonstrate its effects
  • humans have personal constructs –> those people use to interpret and predict events
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25
Q

personal constructs (Kelly)

A
  • people have a few key constructs they habitually apply in interpreting their world (especially the social world)
  • each person has their own unique interpretation of the world
  • personality = differences in personal contructs
  • similar to cognitive schemas (mental concepts that help people process/organize/interpret incoming information)
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26
Q

describe how Kelly theorized that personal constructs are “bipolar”

A
  • consist of some characteristic understood against its opposite (or when person takes it to be its opposite)
  • this is what makes personal constructs different from schemas
  • e.g. smart vs not smart –> parse the world into social groupings based on this
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27
Q

postmodernism

A
  • intellectual position grounded in notion that reality is constructed, every person/culture has a unique version of reality, and no single version is more privileged than another
  • E.g. Kelly’s theory –> personal constructs serve to create each person’s psychological reality
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28
Q

what was Kelly’s most basic idea

A
  • the fundamental postulate
  • person’s processes are psychologically channelized by ways in which they anticipate events
  • each had number of collaries –> two people with psychologically similar construct systems interpret the world similiarly
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29
Q

describe Kelly’s notion of anxiety

A
  • anxiety is the result of our personal constructs failing to make sense of our circumstances
  • e.g. when events are felt to be unpredictable and outside of control
  • sometimes constructs are too rigid, or sometimes they are too flexible –> can cause people to experience things they “can’t understand”
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30
Q

locus of control

A
  • person’s perception of responsibility for life events
  • locating responsibility internally or externally (luck, fate)
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31
Q

describe Rotter’s social learning theory

A
  • learning depends on degree to which people value the reinforcement value
  • not all reinforcements are equal
  • people differ in terms of their expectations for reinforcement
  • includes expectancy of reinforcement model –> some people think certain behaviours result in reinforcement (i.e. they think they are in control of receiving reinforcement) while others think that their behaviour will not result in change
32
Q

generalized expectancies

A
  • person’s expectations for reinforcement are held across a variety of situations
  • in new situations, people base expectancies on generalized expectancies about whether they have the ability to influence events
  • external and internal locus of control
33
Q

describe the outcomes of having an internal locus of control

A
  • in general it is conducive to wellbeing
  • tendency toward being more in charge of one’s life
  • problems can arise when confronted with circumstances that are truly outside of their control (e.g. “survivor syndrome” where you think “if only” I had done something differently)
  • e.g. completing degrees in more timely manner, higher credit ratings
  • less likely to give up control (e.g. automated cars)
34
Q

specific expectancies

A
  • emphasis on locus of control in discrete areas of life
  • might be internal in one area but external in another
  • e.g. health outcomes vs academic outcomes
35
Q

learned helplessness

A
  • e.g. study on subjecting dogs to foot shocks –> eventually stop trying to escape, even when it is easy for them to, until they are coached on how to escape
  • people have been found to generalize learned helplessness across situations
  • can result from many difficult situations (e.g. trauma)
36
Q

intergenerational trauma

A

historical trauma experienced by earlier generations has had lasting effects that are still felt by members of these communities today –> collective experience making some members of these communities more vulnerable to stress

37
Q

describe how locus of control and learned helplessness applies to intergenerational trauma experienced by indigenous communities

A
  • passing of learned behavioural patterns between generations (e.g. violence)
  • lack of support services, ongoing discrimination
  • learned helplessness: failure in past = expectations of failure in future –> lowered self esteem & heightened depression
  • locus of control: internal locus is diminished, lack of intrinsic motivation for achievement & success, suicidal thoughts
38
Q

when can learned helplessness result

A
  • when people are stuck in an unpleasant situation that is apparently outside of control (e.g. experiencing abuse)
  • nothing you do seems to solve the problem
39
Q

what is learned helpless understood as

A

in terms of explanatory style –> involves different ways of interpreting & explaining the causes of events

40
Q

causal attribution

A

person’s explanation of the cause of an event

41
Q

explanatory style

A

tendencies some people have to frequently use certain explanations for the causes of events (internal vs external, stable vs unstable, global vs specific)

42
Q

what are the three dimensions of explanatory style

A
  • internal/external
  • stable/unstable
  • global/specific (does it apply to all areas of your life)
43
Q

describe the two types of explanatory styles

A
  • pessimistic: internal, stable & global causes
  • optimistic: external, temporary & specific causes
44
Q

what are some benefits of having an optimistic explanatory style

A
  • better grades
  • more resilience, optimism in college
  • better response to trauma, lower symptoms of PTSD
45
Q

describe determining differences in personality revealed through goals (and share some methods)

A
  • general focus of these approaches is on intention –> what do people want to happen, what do they want to achieve
  • personal strivings, current concerns, personal projects, and life tasks
46
Q

personal project

A
  • set of relevant actions intended to achieve a goal that a person has selected
  • make natural units for understanding the workings of personality
  • most people can list important projects they work on in their everyday lives
47
Q

describe how people high in neuroticism describe their personal projects

A

stressful, difficult, likely to end in failure, outside of their control, feel like they’ve made little progress –> difficulty and dissatisfaction in achieving goals

48
Q

what specific aspects of personal projects are most closely related to overall reports of life satisfaction and happiness

A
  • feeling in control of personal projects
  • feeling unstressed about those projects
  • feeling optimistic that projects will end successfully

–> low stress, high control, high optimism

49
Q

cognitive social learning approach

A

emphasizes the cognitive and social processes whereby people learn to value and strive for certain goals over others (Bandura)

50
Q

describe Bandura’s research focus

A
  • classic behavioural psychology viewed humans as passive responders to the external environment –> completely determined by external reinforcements
  • Bandura argued instead that people have intentions and forethought –> active responders to environment
  • added cognitive and social variables to classical learning theory –> cognitive social learning theory
51
Q

self-efficacy (Bandura)

A
  • self-efficacy is one of most important concepts of cognitive social learning theory
  • belief that one can execute a specific course of action to achieve a goal
52
Q

describe how self-efficacy and performance influence one another

A
  • self efficacy leads to better performance
  • better performance then leads to better self-efficacy
  • note: can be influenced by modelling (seeing others engage in performance with positive results)
53
Q

describe Dweck’s research

A
  • helpless and master-oriented behaviours in schoolchildren
  • some students persist in the face of failure, while others quit upon encountering difficulties
  • e.g. implicit beliefs about nature of intelligence impacts their approach to challenging tasks
54
Q

entity theory of intelligence (Dweck)

A
  • implicit belief that intelligence is unchangeable and fixed internal characteristic
  • leads to avoidance of academic challenges
55
Q

incremental theory of intelligence (Dweck)

A
  • implicit belief that intelligence can be increased through effort and persistence
  • leads to seeking out academic challenges
56
Q

describe the implications Dweck’s theory has for giving praise to students

A
  • praising children for intelligence may reinforce notion that success and failure depend on something out of their control
  • children admired for effort are more likely to view intelligence as changeable –> stable self-esteem, work through frustrations & setbacks
57
Q

regulatory focus theory (Higgins)

A
  • people regulate their goal-directed behaviours in 2 distinct ways that serve 2 different needs
  • promotion focus & prevention focus
  • more focused on motivation and goal behaviours
58
Q

promotion focus

A
  • person is concerned with advancement, growth & accomplishments
  • eagerness, approach, going for gold
59
Q

prevention focus

A
  • concerned with protection, safety & prevention of negative outcomes/failure
  • vigilance, caution
60
Q

what traits are promotion focus associated with

A
  • extraversion
  • behavioural activation
61
Q

what traits are prevention focus associated with

A
  • neuroticism
  • harm avoidance
  • negatively associated with impulsivity
62
Q

what types of errors are discussed in regulatory focus theory

A
  • commission errors (making incorrect choice) –> people high in prevention focus less likely to make these (don’t want to make incorrect choice)
  • omission errors (not making a correct choice) –> people high in promotion focus are less likely to make these errors (don’t want to miss opportunity of being correct)
63
Q

cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)

A
  • personality is not a collection of traits, but an organization of cognitive and affective activities that influence how people respond to certain kinds of situations
  • emphasis on personality processes rather than static traits (in relation to situations)
  • e.g. goals, expectations, beliefs, feelings, standards, abilities, plans, strategies
64
Q

describe how CAPS theory argues people differ from each other

A
  • people differ in the distinct organization of their cognitive and affective processes
  • different processes are activated at different times –> different mediation of impact of specific situations
  • e.g. people may not be aggressive in all situations
  • if…then… propositions
  • people engage in internal processes to regulate their behaviours
65
Q

achievement view of intelligence

A
  • educational attainment
  • how much knowledge a person has acquired relative to others
66
Q

aptitude view of intelligence

A
  • ability to become educated
  • ability or aptitude to learn
  • traditional measures of IQ use this approach
67
Q

general intelligence (g) and what did research find about this

A
  • intelligence was thought of as a single broad factor
  • later, researchers began to identify separate abilities (verbal ability, memory ability, perceptual ability, arithmetic ability)
68
Q

what types of scores are given by intelligence tests

A
  • some give 2 scores (verbal score and mathematical score)
  • WISC has 11 subtest scores (6 verbal, 5 nonverbal) –> still in 2 categories of verbal and performance intelligence
69
Q

what was found in people higher in numeracy

A
  • higher ability to reason and use numbers = more accurate judgements about scientific data
  • BUT more likely to support side of debate they were already on in a political issue –> confirm pre-existing beliefs by dismissing information
70
Q

multiple intelligences

A
  • sever forms total
  • interpersonal (social skills), intrapersonal (insight into oneself), kinesthetic, musical intelligence, emotional intelligence, etc.
71
Q

why is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences controversial

A
  • some feel that these separated abilities are correlated enough with each other –> can think of intelligence as a general factor
  • others acknowledge a few broad distinctions (verbal and math)
  • others support using non-cognitive measures of personality characteristics (persistence, initiative, etc.) or emotional intelligence
72
Q

cultural context of intelligence

A
  • “intelligent behaviour” differs across cultures
  • e.g. Western cultures emphasize verbal skills (written and oral)
  • others value problem-solving
73
Q

what is the Flynn effect

A

rise in population IQ over the last half of the 20th century

74
Q

why might the Flynn effect be occurring

A
  • better nutrition
  • better access to quality education
75
Q

what is the reverse Flynn effect

A
  • decline in IQ scores over the past decade
  • worrisome because IQ is associated with many indicators of national wellbeing (domestic product, education, etc.)
76
Q

why might the reverse Flynn effect be occurring

A

increasing fertility rates (fertility and IQ negatively correlated)

77
Q

inspection time

A
  • new variable in intelligence research
  • time it takes a person to make a simple discrimination between 2 objects
  • highly related to standard measures of general intelligence and other measures of perceptual speed/reaction time
  • leading indicator in cognitive decline in old age
  • note: also measures of discriminating between auditory intervals –> overall measures of processing efficiency

PSYC 315 Personality (16 decks)

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