Lecture 3

Question 1

Conventional wisdom in IR theory

Answer 1

no hierarchy in int. system
Presence or absence of hierarchy is key to the distinction between
domestic and international politics

Question 2

Realism

Answer 2

There’s no world government able to protect states or ensure rule compliance. States
differ in their power resources, but no state has special rights or functions.

Question 3

Liberalism

Answer 3

States differ in internal structure/values/culture, which shapes their external interests
and behaviour, but no state has special rights or functions.

Question 4

Institutionalism

Answer 4

: States adopt international institutions to achieve their joint interests, but no state
has special rights or functions.

Question 5

Waltz 1979 on domestic vs int politics

Answer 5

• “Domestic systems are centralized and hierarchic.”
• “International systems are decentralized and anarchic.”

Question 6

International hierarchy definition

Answer 6

The distribution of authority places actors in vertical relations of domination and
subordination where some are expected to rule over others.

Question 7

Authority

Answer 7

the power or right to set rules and enforce obedience by others.

Question 8

Hierarchy can exist in ..

Answer 8

in relations between states, or involve non-state actors,
groups and individuals

Question 9

Hierarchy is based on differences in coercive power
What are the costs?

Answer 9

Information costs
– Identifying opportunities for mutual gain
* Decision-making costs
– Negotiating the terms of cooperation
* Sovereignty costs
– Compromises on autonomy to achieve cooperation
* Enforcement costs
– Monitoring behavior, punishing violators

Question 10

Realpolitik

Answer 10

Dominant power: USA
* Able to use overwhelming force against all others.
* Expected to lead int’l cooperation, enforce int’l law.
Great powers: China, France, Russia, UK
* Able to use force effectively beyond their region.
* Expected to contribute to int’l cooperation, enforcement of int’l law.
Middle powers: Brazil, Israel, Japan, Nigeria, Turkey…
* Able to use force effectively in their region.
* Expected to lead regional cooperation and stability.
Small powers
* Unable to use force effectively except against other small powers.
* Not expected to play major role in int’l cooperation or enforcement of int’l law.

Question 11

Hegemonic stability theory

Answer 11

• Hegemonic stability theory
• Hegemons are able and expected to provide the resources and leadership necessary
  for maintaining international cooperation. Without hegemony, cooperation breaks
  down.
• See lecture on ‘Cooperation’
  Hierarchy is based on
  differences in coercive power.

Question 12

Power transition theory

Answer 12

• The rise and fall of great powers destabilizes international order, increases the risk of
  war.
• See lecture on ‘Power shifts…’
  Hierarchy is based on
  differences in coercive power.

Question 13

Hierarchy is based on differences in wealth and market position

Answer 13

• Basic concept: States have different roles and authority depending on their
  relative wealth and market power.
  – Wealthy states are expected to lead, less wealthy states are expected to follow.
• Emphasizes economic capabilities and/or market position: Less-wealthy states
  accept differentiation of roles because they have little economic power of their
  own.
• Effects: State action is shaped by differences in roles and authority based on
  differences in wealth and market power, regardless of actual interests or
  preferences.

Question 14

Special roles for rich state

Answer 14

Viola 2020. Traditional hierarchy: ‘great powers’
* Modern hierarchy: Key decisions on global economy are made by states with the wealth and
market power to affect the system… not by all states that are affected by it.
* Since 1973: policy coordination via G-7 composed of wealthy industrialized states – Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, US (now also EU)
* Since 1999: policy coordination via G-20 composed of ‘systemically significant states’. Hierarchy is based on
differences in wealth & market position

Question 15

Power of money in the UN

Answer 15

Graham 2015. UN Charter: UN’s core budget is funded by mandatory contributions proportional to each
member state’s GDP.
Reality: UN is increasingly dependent on restricted, voluntary contributions by member
states, especially for peacekeeping and economic development.
This increases the ability of rich states to control global governance.
Hierarchy is based on
differences in wealth & market position.

Question 16

Hierarchy is based on social constructions of identity and difference

Answer 16

• Basic concept: Deep structures of organised inequality develop over time and
  provide advantages to certain groups (of states or persons) over others.
• Social structures are more important than agency: Hierarchy functions through
  deeply rooted social practices and ways of thinking, not through actors’ choices.
• Effects: Hierarchies produce particular types of actors with particular social
  capacities for action that belong (or don’t belong) in particular spaces

Question 17

Illustrations on race in IR

Answer 17

Hierarchy is based on
social constructions of identity and difference. DuBois 1925, Rodney 1972, Sajed & Persaud 2018, Barder 2021, Freeman, Kim, Lake 2022, Untalan 2023

Question 18

Complexity of racial hierarchy

Answer 18

Untalan 2023. In the early 20th century, Japan challenged and reinforced racial hierarchies in IR.
* 1905: Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War broke widespread expectations regarding the military
superiority of white, Western states.
* This encouraged anti-colonial movements around the world.
* 1919: Japan proposed that the new League of Nations adopt a proposal on the abolition of racial
discrimination, but said that it would apply only to members of the League, not to all peoples worldwide.
* Proposal supported by China; rejected by US, UK, British dominions (Australia, Canada, New Zealand).
* 1920s & 30s: Japan adopted its own racialised hierarchy to justify its domination of East Asia.

Question 19

Racial hierarchy is integral to international relations

Answer 19

Freeman, Kim, Lake 2022 see their graph in slides.
Focus on racism and racial hierarchy helps to understand key aspects of IR,
including behavior that sustains an unequal global system.
Examples:
* The belief that non-White countries lack essential domestic or int’l capacities 
unevenness in the application of international law; justification for intervention or
denial of self-determination.
* The belief that non-White countries are inherently aggressive and threatening 
decisions on national security and alliance formation.

Question 20

Global racial imaginary

Answer 20

Barder 2021. * The modern state system and the original idea of global order were based on a
‘global racial imaginary’ – i.e., constructions of racial difference and hierarchy.
* Racialized violence created and maintains a system that is economically
beneficial to some and harmful to others.
* Maintaining racial hierarchy sometimes takes priority over economic rationality.

Question 21

Standard of civilization

Answer 21

Sajed and Persaud 2018. Western states and societies developed a ‘standard of civilization’
attributing lesser humanity, moral inferiority and lesser rights to certain
peoples.
* Results: Genocide, slave trade, expropriation of land & resources, denial
of national independence and self-determination

Question 22

Racism and imperialism

Answer 22

Rodney 1972. Imperialism is an integrated global system in which wealthy capitalist states
dominate and exploit less-powerful regions of the world.
* It was shaped by both economic rationality and racism:
* “Pervasive and vicious racism was present in imperialism as a variant
independent of the economic rationality that initially gave birth to racism. It was
economics that determined that Europe should invest in Africa and control the
continent’s raw materials and labor. It was racism which confirmed the decision
that the form of control should be direct colonial rule.” (p.141)

Question 23

Racial hierarchies reinforce distributions of wealth and power

Answer 23

DuBois 1925. “Colonialism is a global economic and political system based on racial (and racist)
distinctions. These distinctions are evident in the minds of individuals, including
Americans, Europeans, Africans and people of African heritage. These distinctions are
reflected in the uneven distribution of economic and military power within states and
between states.”

Question 24

Hierarchy as voluntary contracts

Answer 24

States and other actors are understood as voluntaristic, purposeful agents in
international life.
* Hierarchies are legitimate orders of authority in which actors (rulers and ruled)
agree on different roles and responsibilities in order to achieve material, functional
and/or social interests.
* These voluntary arrangements shape the behaviour of states and other actors.

Question 25

Hierarchy in int. relations

Answer 25

Lake 2019. International hierarchies are “bargains between ruler and ruled premised on the
former’s provision of social order of value sufficient to offset the loss of freedom.”
* One state agrees to cede some authority (sovereignty) to another in exchange for
security, economic, or political benefits.
Hierarchies are an important part of governance in the absence of world
government.
* US-Europe: US provides defense umbrella… expects political support.
* US-Caribbean: US maintains order & keeps outsiders out… expects political support
& free trade.
* WTO ensures free trade… member states accept rulings by supranational panels.

Question 26

More on hierarchy in int. relations

Answer 26

Lake 2007. Hierarchy is closely related to authority, defined as rightful rule, and the legitimate exercise of
power.
* “In an authority relationship, the subordinate state recognizes both that the dominant state has the right to
issue certain commands and that it should, within the limits of its abilities, follow those commands or suffer
appropriate consequences. In short, the subordinate accepts the dominant state’s commands as legitimate.”
(51)
Hierarchy relies on contingent, relational authority, not coercion or formal-legal authority.
* “Obligation flows not from [the law or] the commands of the ruler, but from the consent of the ruled; a ruler
does not possess authority unless her subordinates acknowledge an obligation to comply with her will.” (55)
Authority is closely related to compliance and enforcement.
* “When political authority is exercised, the dominant state commands a subordinate state to alter its behavior,
where command implies that the former has the right to order the latter to take certain actions. This right, in
turn, implies a correlative obligation or duty by the subordinate state to comply, if possible, with the
dominant state’s order… The subordinate state’s obligation implies a further correlative right by the dominant
state to enforce its command in the event of noncompliance.” (50)

Question 27

Contractual hierarchy is not new

Answer 27

Kang 2010. * Study of international relations in East Asia 1368-1841 – from the Ming dynasty
to the Opium Wars.
* China ensured a Confucian-inspired social order valued by Korea, Japan, Vietnam,
who accepted the legitimacy of Chinese leadership and provided tribute to China.
* Exchange of tribute & regulated trade -> trust, conflict resolution, few major
wars.
* Note: This analysis is controversial – see critique by Chia 2022, below

Question 28

Hierarchical contracts can be made by international society as a whole, not just by individual states

Answer 28

Clark, Bukovansky and Eckersley 2012. Q: Why is there a P-5 in the United Nations? Why has int’l society consistently
addressed major global problems by allocating differentiated responsibilities
(hierarchy) among sovereign states?
A: Allocating special responsibilities is more efficient than relying on sovereign
equality or power competition. Special responsibilities give both rulers and ruled
incentives to support the outcome that international society values.

Question 29

Hierarchy as a contested domination

Answer 29

All forms of hierarchy are contested by subordinate actors – sometimes effectively,
sometimes not.
Strategies of contestation – how subordinate actors attempt to challenge hierarchy:
* Contesting the ideas and discourses that sustain inequality
* Challenging the formal rules that sustain hierarchy
* Accumulating greater material resources

Question 30

Examples of contesting hierarchical ideas and discourse

Answer 30

Chia 2022.
Response to Kang 2010
* In early modern Southeast Asia, both Siam and Vietnam tried to assert their equality
(and even superiority) to Chinese dynasties that challenged their sense of self.
Shilliam 2015.
The political struggles of the African diaspora resonated with and influenced the
strategies of South Pacific peoples because they also confronted an international
hierarchy based on racial distinctions.

Question 31

Challenging formal rules that support hierarchy

Answer 31

Egel and Ward 2022. * Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) creates ‘nuclear hierarchy’ –
some states formally authorised to have N-weapons, others not.
* Many small/weak states are unhappy with NPT’s hierarchy.
* They partnered with civil society/NGOs to draft Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear
Weapons (TPNW) that stigmatizes N-weapons and subverts the discourse that
advantages states that possess them.
* Adopted by UNGA in 2017, and 91 states have signed,
in force since 2021, but effects are unclear.

Question 32

If you cant change the rules, then accumulate resources

Answer 32

In 1970s, poor countries challenged rules of the world economy, proposed a ‘New
International Economic Order’ (NIEO) that would mandate redistribution from North to
South.
* They failed, due to resistance by North and divisions in South.
* Since 1990s, ‘Global South’ has used global capitalist system to gain wealth and challenge
hierarchy between ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’.
* Some states in Global South have become much wealthier and gained global influence –
G20 now as important as G7.
* But global inequality remains.