Lecture 1 (chapters 1 & 2) Flashcards
Anatomic NomenClature
The terms used to name body components. Proper nomenclature listed in the Nomina Anatomica is often compromised by the continued use of slang, obsolete, and inventive terms.
Anatomy
The science of body structure. It is essentially synonymous with morphology (study of form) and is divided into numerous subtypes.
Ausculation
evaluation of body structures based on the noises that they produce. Ausculation is of limited value anatomically because most organs do not produce sounds.
Biological macromolecules
Large organic molecules that are synthesized from smaller organic components by living organisms. The four main groups of them are proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.
Cell
A unit of living matter surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane and capable of reproduction in a environment devoid of other living things. There are dozens of different kinds of cells in the body.
Diagnostic imaging
The various techniques used to demonstrate the relationships of body components without physically invading the body. These include several forms of radiography, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and radionuclide imaging.
Dissection
The process of methodically cutting the body apart in order to study its individual components and their relationships. Dissection was the first means of anatomic study and remains the best single technique today.
Lumen
The hollow space within a tubular organ. Many mody organs have such a design including most of the organs of the visceral body systems as weel as the heart, vessels, and even the brain and spinal cord.
Mucous membrane (mucosa)
The lining layer of the tubular organs of the visceral body systems. Mucous membranes contain epithelium and connective tissue (as do serous membranes) and typically include muscle tissue as well.
Normal Anatomic Position (NAP)
a standardized body positioin used when comparing positional relationships of body components. In the NAP, the body is standing erect with the head and feet forward, the superior limbs hanging straight down at the sides of the trunk, the palms to the front, and the fingers straightened and directed downward.
Organ
a body structure composed of at least two different tissues. Most organs contain several kinds of tissue and they vary from small, simple entities like capillaries to large complex structures such as the heart and brain.
Organelle
A structural subcomponent of a cell composed of various combinations of biological macromolecules. Organells play strictly defined functional roles and include the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, lysosomes, and mitochondria, as well as several others.
Palpation
the identification and study of body parts by touch and feel. A significantly large percentage of body structures can be identified in this manner, but patience and practice are required.
Parenchyma
The functional part of an organ (vs. the structural portion which is called the stroma.) In a gland, for example, the secretory cells form the parenchyma and the connective tissue framework that supports the secretory cells comprises the stroma.
Plane
A flat surface virtually passed through the body for the purpose of comparing positional relationships. Virtical planes divide the body into right/left parts (sagittal planes) or into front/back parts (coronal planes). Transverse planes (horizontally oriented) divide the body into upper and lower portions.
Principles of morphology
The structural design features of the body. They include tubulation (hollow-ness that continues from organ to organ), stratification (layering), zygomorphism (bilateral symmetry), metamerism (linear sequencing), and cavitation (space between organs).
Serous Membrane (serosa)
The thin, transparent membrane formed of epithelium and connective tissue that lines the closed body cavities. Serous membranes are variously named pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum to distinguish those into wich lungs, heart, and abdominal organs are invaginated (repectively).
System
A group of organs that fulfills a specific function. Depending on one’s organizational scheme, body organs are grouped into eight to twelve systems which are divided into two categories: visceral systems and somatic systems.
Taxonomy
The science of classifying and naming plants and animals. The major taxa (categories) within the animal kingdom are phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. For mankind these are Chordata, Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, and sapiens, respectively
Tissue
A group of similar cells and their extracellular products. There are four basic tissues in the body (muscle tissue, epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue), and these are subdivided into numerous specific tissue types
Viscus (plural=viscera)
Any organ that belongs to one of the visceral body systems. Such systems have a tubular design, a mucous membrane lining and one or more openings at the body surface
Anatomy
Means to cut apart, Describes the major technique (dissection) used to study the body and its parts. It is synonymous with Morphology(study of form)
Physiology
Concerned primarily with body funtion.
Gross Anatomy
Body structures large enough to study without magnification
Microsopic Anatomy
Structures requiring magnification up to about 100 times.
Radiological Anatomy
Images of body structures using x-ray techniques
Functional Anatomy
The interrelationships and mechanics of body parts.
Systemic Anatomy
Anatomy of the body divided into its organ systems.
Surface Anatomy
The form and markings of the surface of the body and the relationship of the surface features to deeper structures.
Dissection
Simply opening the body and observing its structure. Is one of the most practical, least expensive, and most efficient tools of anatomical science. There is no better way to study most aspects of human gross anatomy than directly from a cadaver.
Palpation
Involves the identification and study of body parts by touch and feel.
Surgery
Involves the removal, rearrangement, and remodeling ofanatomic structures. It not only makes use of anatomical knowledge but contributes significantly to the anatomical knowledge pool. Surgeons are amont the best anatomists.
Radiography
The science of using x-rays to produce photograph-like images (radiographs). It is painless and non-invasive, but x-rays have been shown to be carcinogenic (cancer producing).
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Uses powerful magnetic fields to energize (excite) the electrons in certain chemical components of the body. The energy given off by these electrons can be captured and displayed on cathode ray tubes. MRI is painless and non-invasive
Utrasonography
Uses relatively low energy vibrations to image body parts. The resulting images are called sonograms. It is painless, noninvasive, and harmless.
Injection/Maceration
injecting plastic resin into hollow organs and then immersing the structures in corrosive chemicals to dissolve away the tissues. Leave a plastic cast for subsequent study.
Percussion
Variation of palpation involving tapping on the body surface and listening to the sounds.
Ausculation
Invlolves listening to sounds that various body structures make (most of them, incidentally, do not make any sounds at all.
Nomina Anatomica
This book is an official list of the several thousand anatomic structures which have been identified. The official (proper) anatomic names are listed in Latin but anatomists are free to translate those terms into any modern language.
Naming criteria for Nomina Anatomica
1) Terms should be short and simble but should have inherent instructional and descriptive value. 2) Eponyms should not be used. 3) Given name should be used for onlyu one structure. 4)Differentiating adjectives shouold be opposites wherever possible. 5) Structures that are topographically related should have similar names.
Animal Kingdom
Includes the living, multicellular organisms that are aerobic (require oxygen) and Heterotrophic (use carbon-based organic compounds for energy)
Kingdom
Animalia- living, multicellular organimsms that are aerobic (require oxygen) and Heterotrophic (use carbon-based organic compounds for energy)
Phylum
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Order
Primates
Family
Hominidae
Genus
Homo
Species
sapiens
Chordata
Includes animals that developmentally possess a dorsal hollow neural tube, a notochord, and pharyngeal pouches.
Dorsal hollow neural tube
becomes the definitive brain and spinal cord.
Notochord
A stiffened rod of mesoderm below the spinal cord, which becomes the bodies of the vertebrae and intervertebral discs.
Pharyngeal pouches
differentiate into the tympanic membrane, palatine tonsils, thymus, and the parathyroid glands.
Mammals
Vertebrates characterized anatomically by hair, mammary glands, three pairs of auditory ossicles, and most of them have four limbs.
Primates
Have prehensile limbs and large brain mass/body mass ratios.
Taxon
Each level of biologicall classification (phylum, class, order, etc.) Includes groups of related organisms which have common anatomical characteristics.
6 Human Anatomic Characteristics
1) Brain size. 2) Bipedal posture/Locomotion. 3)Opposable thumbs. 4)Stereoscopic vision. 5)Vocal organ. 6)Crooked teeth. In addition there are other characteristics that set mankind apart. These include specific numbers of vertebrae, teeth, and the relative helplessness of neonates (newborn infants).
Brain size
Humans have the largest brain mass to boddy mass ratio. Some have large brains but not when compared as a percentage of the overall size of animal. Also most surface area.
Bipedal posture/locomotion.
With exception of kangaroos and wallabies, mankind is the only mammal that is bipedal in its primary mode of locomotion. Others can use bipedal but its not their primary mode of transportation
Opposable thumbs
The fact that the thumb can be folded across the palm of the hand greatly increases the grasping ability of the human hand.
Stereoscopic vision
The ability to direct both eyes at the same object allows depth perception. Some other mammals and some birds also have steroscopic vision
Vocal Organ
Although many animals can vocalize to a limited extend, none but man have evolved a comples, articulate form of speech.j This involves intricate interactions of the larynx, tongue, oral cavity, teeth, and lips.
Crooked teeth.
Very few human beings have perfect dentition (naturally). This is probably related to dietary changes over the last several thousand years which have resulted in shortening of the mandible and maxillae and crowding of the teeth.
Neonate
Newborn infants
Factors of morphological variation
The characteristics that distinguish one animal from another. These include species, sex, age, race, individual variations, and state of health.
Ten Levels of Organization
Subatomic particles, Atoms, Inorganic compounds, Organic compounds, Biological macromolecules, Organelles, Cell, Tissues, Organs, Organ systems, Organism
Subatomic particles
Electrons, Protons, Neutrons
Inorganic compounds
Simpliest form of chemical bonds. Do not have carbon in them
Organic compounds
Are the building blocks of life. They have carbon and are more comples structure than in organic. The term organic refers to living organisms and the fact that these compounds are normally produced only by living things.
Biological macromolecules.
Organic molecules are combined by dehydration synthesis reatctions to form these.
4 types of biological macromolecules
Polysaccharides, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic acids.
Organelles
Are the subparts of cells. Can be described as supramolecular assemblies of biological macromolecules.
Types of organells
Ribosomes, lysosomes, mitochondria, golgi comples, endoplasmic reticulum. Even the nucleus and the cell membrane can be considered to be organelles.
Cell
A unit of living matter delineated by a semipermeable membrane and capable of reproduction in an environment devoid of other life. All lifing things are composed of cells and cell products.
Tissue
Groups of cells and their products form tissues
4 basic tissues
Muscle tissue, epithelial tissue (epithelium), Connective tissue, and Nervous tissue
Muscle Tissue
Is composed of cells which are specialized for contraction
3 sub types of muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue, Skeletal muscle tissue, Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue
Major component of the heart and some of the large vessels near the heart
Skeletal muscle tissue
Forms the contractile parts of the named skeletal muscles of the body
Smooth Muscle tissue
is found within many of the organs of the body as well as the bases of hair follicles
Epithelial tissue (Epithelium)
Covers the inner and outer surfaces of the body and forms the secretory portions of glands.
Endocrine glands
Secrete directly into the bloodstream
Exocrine glands
empty their secreation onto a free body surface
Connective tissue
Is distinguished from other body tissues by the presence of large amounts of intercellular material called Matrix, and an amorphous glue termed ground substance.
Sub categories of Connective tissue
Connective tissue proper, bone, cartilage, blood, adipose tissue(fat), and others(bone marrow, lymphatic tissue, and reticular connective tissue)
Nervous tissue
Consist of cells called neurons that are specialed for the conduction of electrical impulses, and several kinds of supporting cells call neuroglia. *There are no sub types to Nervous tissue
Sensory neurons
Carry impulses which are interpreted and correlated by other neurons in the brain. *carry to the brain
Motor neurons
Sends impulses that control the activity of muscle tissue and glandular epithelium. *carry away from the brain
Organ
Structure composed of two or more tissues. Includes a broad range of entities, from structures as comples as the brain to entities as simple as capillaries. **Most organs are composed of all four of the basic tissues, although one or two may predominate.
Lumen
Central hollow space in organs, that may always or occasionally contian something else (air, ingesta, blood, urine.
Parenchyma
The main functional components of an organ
Stroma
The structural framework of an organ.
Body Systems
Groups of organs with common functional goals
5 visceral body systems
Digestive system, respiratory system, urinary system, Male reproductive system, femal reproductive system
3 things that distinguishes visceral systesm
1) tubular design 2)one or more openings at the body surface 3)Mucous membrane (mucosa) lining.
Viscera
Organs belonging to the visceral body systems
7 somatic body systems
Cardiovascular system, Nervous system, Skeletal System, Muscular System, Integumentary system, Lymphatic system, Endocrine system.
Splanchnology
Includes the study of the visceral organs as well as those of the endocrine system.
Divisions of the system
Some authors reduce the number of body systems by combining closely related ones. Muscular and skeletal system = musculoskeletal system. Urinary and reproductive systems = urogenital system. Lymphatic system is often considered to be a subdivison of the cardovascular system. Lowest # is 8
5 basic principles of Morphology
Tubulation, Stratification, Zygomorphism, Metamerism, Cavitation
Tubulation
The hollowness of organs within a system continues from organ to organ. (blood vessels, alimentary canal, urinary bladder.)
Stratification
Distinct layering in many parts of the body (skin, intestinal wall, cornea of the eye.)
Zygomorphism
Bilateral symmetry present in the body, left structure are identical to right structures. (eyes, ears, limbs, ribs)
Metamerism
Longitudinal(linear) series of structures demonstrated by some parts of the body (vertebrae, ribs, intercostal muscles, superior and inferior limbs.)
Cavitation
Refers to the fact that the head and trunk of the body are not solid structural masses. Head- cranial cavity, Thorax-Thoracic cavity, abdomen-abdominal cavity.
Serious cavieties
potential spaces lined by serous membranes that surround the lungs (pleural cavities), heart (pericardail cavity), and abdominal organs (peritoneal cavity).
Serous Membrane (serosa)
a paper thin structure with two layers: and epithelial lining and a delicate outer layer of connective tissue proper, that binds the epithelium to the adjacent structures. Serous membranes (two layers) should be differentiated from mucous membranes (three layers).
