Learning and Memory Flashcards
Habituation and Dishabituation
Habituation: repeated exposure leads to decrease in response.
Dishabituation: Recovery of a response after habituation occurs (usually a second stimulus is presented) - causes an increase in response to OG
Subthreshold
Stimuli too weak to elicit a response
Two major types of learning
Associative (pairing two stimuli with a behavior and a response) Classical + Operant and Observational Learning (learning new behavior through observation)
Classical Conditioning
- US (meat) -> UR (salivation)
- NS paired with US causes UR (acquisition)
- NS -> CS ; UR -> CR
Extinction
Loss of CR when the CS is presented without the US
Spontaneous Recovery
Presenting the extinct CS after some time can produce a weak CR
Generalization
When similar stimuli to CS can produce the CR.
Discrimination
When similar stimuli is distinguished from the CS and does not produce the CR.
Operant Condtioning
how consequences have an effect on the frequency of the effect.
Behaviorism
All behaviors are conditioned (BF Skinner)
Reinforcement and Punishment
Reinforcement: increasing a behavior Punishment: decreasing a behavior ; +: introducing stimuli -: removing stimuli.
Escape and Avoidance Learning
Negative Reinforcement:
Escape: To get away from a stimuli already present
Avoidance: to prevent situations with an unpleasant stimuli
Multiple escape –> avoidance (seat belt)
Reinforcers (OC + CC)
- Primary Reinforcer: US that elicit behavior
- Secondary Reinforcer: NS paired with Primary Reinforcer
- Discriminative Stimulus: any other stimuli associated with the US.
Aversive conditioning
Positive punishment (another word)
Reinforcement Schedules
- FR (reinforce every x time)
- continuous reinforcement is if it is 1:1 - VR (reinforce random x time). ~ usually averages out
- FI (reinforce first time after specific x seconds)
- VI (reinforce first time after random x seconds)
Best Reinforcement Schedules
VR > FR > VI > FI
Shaping
Process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors to the closest desired one.
Biological + Cognitive factors of Associative Learning
- Latent Learning: subconscious learning occur without a reward and spontaneously realized once reward is introduced.
- Problem Solving: Analyzing and simplifying problems (heuristics)
- Preparedness: actions that are similar to natural actions are more easily learned (pecking)
- Instinctive drift: reverting to natural behavior when learning a similar behavior
Bobo Doll Experiment
Children who watched an adult beat up a doll also proceeded to beat up the doll as well.
Mirror neurons
Activates when we see someone perform an action we just did. (empathy)
Modeling
Behaviors can be decided by seeing what is appropriate by other people (media, role models, actions)
The three steps of Memorization
- Encoding (processing new information)
- Storage (information into memories)
- Retrieval (being able to recall that memory)
Automatic and Controlled processing
Automatic: without any effort, unintentional
Controlled: Active memorization and working.
Controlled can become automatic (language)
Ways to encode information
- Visual encoding: very detailed but short lived
- Acoustic encoding: long lived
- Elaborative encoding: connecting with our memory.
- Semantic encoding: meaningful context
Self-Reference Effect
Type of semantic encoding that allows best recall of information in relation to ourselves.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repetition of information to keep in working memory (or encode to LT)
Mnemonics, method of loci, peg-word
acronyms and rhyming phrase.
Method of Loci: associating items with a familiar location.
Peg-word items that rhyme with the number,
Chunking
Taking individual elements of a list and grouping them to groups with meaning.
Sensory memory
Preserves information in original sensory form
- echoic, iconic
very high accuracy but super fast. (correlated with projection areas)
Whole-report vs Partial-report
WR: asking to recall an entire list without any order
PR: Particular order or component of a list
PR more accurate saying that all of it can be processed
Eidetic memory
Ability to recall an image with high precision after brief exposure
Short-Term Memory
When we decide to pay attention to sensory information.
Memory Capacity
Short term memory capacity about 7+/-2 (can be increased via clustering)
Hippocampus Role in Memory (temporal lobe)
Holds short term memory and consolidates them into long-term memory (moves slowly to cerebral cortex)
Working Memory
Short-term memory which allows us to manipulate the information with attention and executive controls
Long-term Memory
Limitless that we are able to recall on demand
Elaborative Rehearsal
Association of information to knowledge already stored in our long-term memory
Visuospatial sketchpad
our working memory ability to store visual and spatial information and manipulate it
Implicit (nondeclarative) and Explicit (declarative)
Implicit: consists of procedural memory and priming
Explicit: semantic + episodic (needs conscious recall)
Positive and Negative Priming
positive: one stimuli improves processing of second
negative: one stimuli interferes with the second.
Memories that include both semantic and episodic
- Flashbulb memory: where were you when this happened?
2. Autobiographical memory: recount of your life.
Three types of retrieval
- Recall
- Recognition: MCAT!
- Relearning: easier way learning it again.
Spacing Effect
Longer the time between relearning sessions = greater retention.
Semantic Network
Brain stores memories of interconnected ideas
Spreading activation
When one component of our semantic network is activated it may trigger interconnected ideas.
Recall cue
Word or phrase that aids in recall (positive priming is caused by spreading activation)
Context effect and State-Dependent effect
CE: Physical location where information was learned can also cause increased retrieval
SD: Mental state where information was learned can cause increase retrieval (also works with emotions)
Source monitoring
Determining the origin of a memory and whether they are real
Serial-position effect
First (primacy) and the last (recency) of a list will be more memorized
Amnesia and Source Amnesia
Forgetting the memory, and forgetting the context of obtaining that knowledge.
Alzheimer’s Disease
Loss of acetylcholine in hippocampus links.
- leads to progressive dementia and brain atrophy.
- loss of recent -> distant
Physical sources of AD
- Neurofibrillary tangles
2. B-amyloid plaques
Sundowning
AD symptom where dysfunction increase in late afternoon and evening.
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Thiamine (B1) defiency
- retrograde and anterograde amnesia
- confabulation: creating fabricated memories.
Agnosia
Loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds (usually only one) caused by physical damage.
Decay
Memories decay when neurochemical trace disappear
Retention function
Recall sharply falls but levels off
Interference
Retrieval error caused by similar information or similar memory
Proactive and Retroactive Interference
Proactive: Old information interferes with new
Retroactive: new information interferes with new
Changes in Aging memory
Increase: semantic, crystallized intelligence, EQ, prospective memory (event-base)
Decrease: Fluid, episodic memory, prospective (time-base)
Reconstruction of Memory vs Reproduction
Memory is reconstructed not reproduced (video camera), imagination, other memories, and perception can affect thoughts,
False Memory
a memory that is incorrect or never occured (caused by filling the gaps of other information)
Recovered Memory
repressed emotions brought back by unconscious recall, but in danger of being false memory.
Misinformation Effect
recall of event becomes less accurate because of outside information of memory also can be caused by framing effect (collided vs smashed)
Intrusion Error
False memories that include a false detail from other memories (not an outside source)
Source-monitoring error
Confusion of the context where information was gathered.
Neuroplasticity
Neural connections can adapt rapidly in response to stimuli.
Synaptic Pruning
Weak connections broken and strong ones reinforced
Long-term Potentiation
Neuron becomes more efficient in releasing neurotransmitters and receiving neuron gets more receptors forming long-term memory. (Glutamate and NMDA receptor)
