Learning Flashcards
0
Q
What is the label for experiences resulting in a stable change in behavior?
A
Learning
1
Q
Define “learning”
A
Learning is the relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as a result of experience.
2
Q
What is the Law of Effect?
A
A precursor to operant conditioning, the law of effect states that reinforcement through cause-and-effect leads to learned behavior.
3
Q
Who proposed the Law of Effect?
A
Edward Lee (E. L.) Thorndike. He was a pioneer in using animal behavior to study psychological principles and generated the Law of Effect from observational studies with cats.
4
Q
What is the name of the theory that cause-and-effect observations lead to reinforcement learning?
A
The Law of Effect
5
Q
What theory did EL Thorndike propose?
A
The Law of Effect
6
Q
What is the Theory of Association?
A
The Theory of Association was a precursor to behaviorism, which said that organisms associate behaviors with awards, or cues with situations.
7
Q
Who proposed the Theory of Association?
A
Kurt Lewin
8
Q
What is the name of the theory that organisms learn by pairing behaviors with rewards, or cues with situations?
A
the Theory of Association
9
Q
What influential theory or law did Kurt Lewin propose?
A
the Theory of Association
10
Q
What Psychological principle did Ivan Pavlov demonstrate with his experiments?
A
Pavlovian Conditioning, aka Classical Conditioning
11
Q
Who discovered classical conditioning?
A
Ivan Pavlov
12
Q
Who founded the behaviorism school of behavior and learning?
A
John B. Watson
13
Q
What theory of behavior and learning did John B. Watson postulate?
A
the theory/school of behaviorism
14
Q
Who was important in demonstrating with experiments the Theory of Association?
A
Ivan Pavlov, BF Skinner
15
Q
Who was important in demonstrating with experiments the Law of Effect?
A
BF Skinner
16
Q
What is a Skinner box?
A
A special experimental chamber designed by BF Skinner
17
Q
What are the four components of a classical conditioning training experiment?
A
- unconditioned stimulus
- unconditioned response
- conditioned stimulus
- conditioned response
18
Q
Give an example of an UCS and UCR
A
eg stimulus - smell of food
response - salivate
19
Q
Give an example of a CS and CR
A
stimulus - tone (in FC)
response - freezing
20
Q
In Simultaneous Conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the organism?
A
The unconditioned (UCS) and conditioned (CS) stimuli are presented simultaneously
21
Q
In Forward Conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?
A
The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented before the unconditioned (UCS)
22
Q
In delayed conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?
A
the presentation of the CS begins before UCS, and lasts until the UCS is presented. (FC protocol)
23
Q
In trace conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?
A
The CS is presented before and is removed before the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
24
What are the two types of Forward Conditioning?
Delayed Conditioning
| Trace Conditioning
25
What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS is presented before the UCS?
Forward Conditioning
26
What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS is presented before the UCS and lasts until the UCS is presented?
Delayed Conditioning
27
What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS and the UCS are presented at the same time?
Simultaneous Conditioning
28
What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS is presented and then terminated before presenting the UCS?
Trace Conditioning
29
In backward conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?
The UCS is presented before the CS. This technique does not result in associative learning between the CS and the response.
30
What is the term for the classical conditioning protocol where the UCS is presented before the CS?
Backwards conditioning
31
What does training with a backwards conditioning protocol result in?
inhibitory conditioning
32
What is inhibitory conditioning?
A conditioned response that inhibits future learning with a simultaneous or forward conditioning training paradigm
33
What is the other name for operant conditioning?
instrumental conditioning
34
What is the other name for instrumental conditioning?
operant conditioning
35
what is the longer more formal description for shaping?
differential reinforcement of successive approximations
36
What is a primary reinforcment?
a naturally reinforcing stimulus, eg food, water, sex
37
what is a secondary reinforcement?
a learned reinforcement. things like money, prestige, etc that do not have primary survival value but which we learn are valuable and so can still reinforce behavior
38
When *positive reinforcement* occurs, what happens and what is the result?
a reward (like food) is given, and it increases the likelihood of the behavior being performed again
39
when *negative reinforcement* occurs, what happens and what is the response?
a negative stimulus is removed (eg loud siren) and it increases the likelihood of the behavior being performed again
40
What are the two key characteristics of learning when a continuous reinforcement schedule is used?
the learning is very rapid, but is 'fragile', so that extinction is also much more rapid
41
What are the two key characteristics of learning when a partial reinforcement schedule is used?
learning takes longer, but is much more resistant to extinction
42
What are the four main types of partial reinforcement schedules?
- fixed ratio schedules
- variable ratio schedules
- fixed interval schedules
- variable interval schedules
43
What is an example paradigm for fixed ratio reward schedules?
The bike incentive. Every 20 trips results in a reward (a 20:1 fixed ratio). This type of schedule is vulnerable to extinction once rewards are not delivered 'on time'
44
what is an example paradigm of a variable ratio reward schedule?
Slot machines that deliver payouts every n presses, but where n is an unpredictable number. This type of schedule is very resistant to extinction once learned
45
What is an example of a fixed interval schedule?
tenured professors' salaries. the paycheck will arrive every two weeks regardless of any behavior. this schedule does not produce good learning of desired behavior
46
what is an example of a variable interval reward schedule?
bus waiting? (if you have a crappy bus system)
| this schedule is also effective at training extinction resistant behaviors
47
If you wanted to train an animal and have the learned behavior resist extinction for a long time, what are the best reinforcement schedules?
variable ratio schedule and variable interval schedule
48
If you wanted to quickly train an animal, what would be the beast reinforcement schedule?
fixed ratio schedule, best would be 1:1 ratio aka continuous reinforcement
49
What is the term to describe motivations like hunger or thirst?
instinctual drives or primary drives
50
What is the term to describe motivations for things like money or fame?
secondary drives or acquired drives
51
What group of theories of motivation does Fritz Heider's 'Balance Theory' belong to?
the maintaining homeostasis motivation group
52
What group of theories of motivation does Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum's 'Congruity Theory' belong to?
the maintaining homeostasis motivation group
53
What group of theories of motivation does Leon Festingers 'Cognitive Dissonance Theory' belong to?
the maintaining homeostasis motivation group
54
What theory of motivation did Clark Hull propose?
That Performance = Drive x Habit
55
What does the idea that Performance =Drive x Habit mean?
Individuals are motivated by drive and behave according to habit, which has satisfied that drive in the past. Eg, I am thirsty and sleepy, so I habitually make a cup of coffee
56
What theory of motivation did Edward Tolman propose?
That Performance = Expectation x Value
57
What does the idea that Performance = Expectation x Value mean?
People are motivated by goals they think they can actually achieve. For example, students who think college is unaffordable will not be as motivated to achieve good grades in high school
58
What is the other name for the theory that Performance = Expectation x Value?
The Expectancy-Value theory
59
What did Victor Vroom research?
He looked at how the Expectancy-Value theory applied to employee motivation in large companies.
60
What theory of motivation did Henry Murray and David McClelland propose?
the need for achievement (nAch) theory
61
What is the goal of the nAch theory of motivation?
to feel successful, both by achieving success and by avoiding failure
62
How did John Atkinson's research relate to the nAch theory?
- people set intermediate goals with medium-low risk of failure so they feel accomplished at succeeding
- but since success is so important, setting risky goals or working towards an unlikely success are avoided
63
What theory of motivation did Neil Miller propose?
approach-avoidance conflict theory
64
What was the approach-avoidance conflict theory?
the idea that certain goals have pros and cons, and that when far from completing the goal the individual will focus on the pros, but when close to completing the goal the individual will focus on the cons
65
What is the Premack principle?
The idea that unpleasant activities can be reinforced by being rewarded afterwards with pleasant activities. Eg, spinach first then dessert
66
Who proposed the theory of optimal arousal level for optimal performance?
Donald Hebb
67
What did Donald Hebb propose?
He theorized that a medium amount of physical arousal will usually allow for the best performance. Simple and complex tasks may require different levels of arousal, but still somewhere in the middle.
68
What relationship did the Yerkes-Dodson law specify? What is the relationship?
The relationship between arousal level and performance on tasks. The relationship is an inverted U, so that best performance requires moderate arousal, but very low and very high arousal impede performance.
69
What is the name of the effect that there is an inverted U relationship between arousal and cognitive oerfirmance?
The Yerkes-Dodson law
70
What type of information is acquired in perceptual or concept learning?
Basically semantic memories like historical information, stories, cognitive maps of areas. Things which are not stimulus-response chains.
71
How did Edward Tolman contribute to research into concept/perceptual learning?
He performed a number of experiments showing how rodents could form cognitive maps of mazes without rewards, then draw on that knowledge later to gain rewards.
72
What is the difference between avoidance conditioning and escape conditioning?
Escape conditioning just means that the individual will escape from an aversive stimulus, eg jumping when shocked. Avoidance conditioning involves presenting a neutral stimulus before the aversive stimulus (ex a light). The individual will condition to avoid the shock altogether by jumping before it is applied.
73
Why is avoidance conditioning so resistant to extinction?
Individuals rarely 'retest' whether the conditioned stimulus still predicts the aversive stimulus. It is better to assume it still does than to risk being re-exposed to the aversive stimulus. This makes bad avoidance behavior (eg agoraphobia) difficult to unlearn.
74
What does autonomic conditioning refer to?
Conditioning responses in the autonomic nervous system through training.
75
What does the term 'state dependent' learning refer to?
It refers to learned behavior or information that is best recalled under the same physiological state as it was learned in.
76
What type circumstances are required for latent learning?
Only that there is no reinforcement. For example, watching a new sport and slowly learning the rules and strategies involved.
77
What is the opposite if intentional learning?
incidental learning
78
What would be another way to describe incidental learning!
accidental learning or unintentional learning
79
What associations are formed in incidental learning?
Unrelated items are associated or grouped together
80
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reemergence of an extinguished response even with no further training/conditioning
81
What do you call it when a previously extinguished behavior is repeated even without refresher training?
spontaneous recovery
82
In the context if conditioning, what is an overshadowing effect?
It is when a more prominent/salient stimulus interferes with an individual's ability to associate a less salient stimulus with a response
83
What is social learning theory?
the theory that people learn through their culture acceptable and unacceptable behaviors
84
What is modeling?
learning behavior by imitating others
85
Who was a major contributor to early research on modeling?
Albert Bandura
86
What was the major study Albert Bandura conducted?
The Bobo doll study on modeling in children.
87
What is observational learning?
Learning by watching others
88
What is the Garcia effect?
The strong conditioned association between food/drink and nausea after only one negative exposure. This was proposed to be evolutionarily primed to form by John Garcia
89
What research did John Garcia conduct?
He looked at the natural ability to form associations between certain types of stimulus-response pairs (food-nausea) but not others (light-nausea)
90
For which group is the Garcia effect particularly pronounced?
Children
91
Who was a premier in using electrodes to stimulate the reward centers of the brains of rodents?
M.E. Olds
92
What is one way of dividing types of motor tasks?
2types:
- continuos motor tasks (eg riding a bicycle)
- discrete motor tasks (eg setting a table)
93
Which is easier to learn, continuous or discrete motor tasks?
continuous
94
What are the two categories of transfer learning?
positive and negative
95
What does positive transfer mean?
When you have previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task
96
What does negative transfer refer to?
when you have learned something previously that makes it more difficult to learn a new task
