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Learning Flashcards

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0
Q

What is the label for experiences resulting in a stable change in behavior?

A

Learning

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1
Q

Define “learning”

A

Learning is the relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as a result of experience.

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2
Q

What is the Law of Effect?

A

A precursor to operant conditioning, the law of effect states that reinforcement through cause-and-effect leads to learned behavior.

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3
Q

Who proposed the Law of Effect?

A

Edward Lee (E. L.) Thorndike. He was a pioneer in using animal behavior to study psychological principles and generated the Law of Effect from observational studies with cats.

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4
Q

What is the name of the theory that cause-and-effect observations lead to reinforcement learning?

A

The Law of Effect

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5
Q

What theory did EL Thorndike propose?

A

The Law of Effect

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6
Q

What is the Theory of Association?

A

The Theory of Association was a precursor to behaviorism, which said that organisms associate behaviors with awards, or cues with situations.

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7
Q

Who proposed the Theory of Association?

A

Kurt Lewin

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8
Q

What is the name of the theory that organisms learn by pairing behaviors with rewards, or cues with situations?

A

the Theory of Association

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9
Q

What influential theory or law did Kurt Lewin propose?

A

the Theory of Association

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10
Q

What Psychological principle did Ivan Pavlov demonstrate with his experiments?

A

Pavlovian Conditioning, aka Classical Conditioning

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11
Q

Who discovered classical conditioning?

A

Ivan Pavlov

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12
Q

Who founded the behaviorism school of behavior and learning?

A

John B. Watson

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13
Q

What theory of behavior and learning did John B. Watson postulate?

A

the theory/school of behaviorism

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14
Q

Who was important in demonstrating with experiments the Theory of Association?

A

Ivan Pavlov, BF Skinner

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15
Q

Who was important in demonstrating with experiments the Law of Effect?

A

BF Skinner

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16
Q

What is a Skinner box?

A

A special experimental chamber designed by BF Skinner

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17
Q

What are the four components of a classical conditioning training experiment?

A
  • unconditioned stimulus
  • unconditioned response
  • conditioned stimulus
  • conditioned response
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18
Q

Give an example of an UCS and UCR

A

eg stimulus - smell of food

response - salivate

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19
Q

Give an example of a CS and CR

A

stimulus - tone (in FC)

response - freezing

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20
Q

In Simultaneous Conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the organism?

A

The unconditioned (UCS) and conditioned (CS) stimuli are presented simultaneously

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21
Q

In Forward Conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?

A

The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented before the unconditioned (UCS)

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22
Q

In delayed conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?

A

the presentation of the CS begins before UCS, and lasts until the UCS is presented. (FC protocol)

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23
Q

In trace conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?

A

The CS is presented before and is removed before the unconditioned stimulus is presented.

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24
Q

What are the two types of Forward Conditioning?

A

Delayed Conditioning

Trace Conditioning

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25
Q

What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS is presented before the UCS?

A

Forward Conditioning

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26
Q

What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS is presented before the UCS and lasts until the UCS is presented?

A

Delayed Conditioning

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27
Q

What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS and the UCS are presented at the same time?

A

Simultaneous Conditioning

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28
Q

What is the term for a classical conditioning protocol where the CS is presented and then terminated before presenting the UCS?

A

Trace Conditioning

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29
Q

In backward conditioning, how are the stimuli presented to the learner?

A

The UCS is presented before the CS. This technique does not result in associative learning between the CS and the response.

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30
Q

What is the term for the classical conditioning protocol where the UCS is presented before the CS?

A

Backwards conditioning

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31
Q

What does training with a backwards conditioning protocol result in?

A

inhibitory conditioning

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32
Q

What is inhibitory conditioning?

A

A conditioned response that inhibits future learning with a simultaneous or forward conditioning training paradigm

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33
Q

What is the other name for operant conditioning?

A

instrumental conditioning

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34
Q

What is the other name for instrumental conditioning?

A

operant conditioning

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35
Q

what is the longer more formal description for shaping?

A

differential reinforcement of successive approximations

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36
Q

What is a primary reinforcment?

A

a naturally reinforcing stimulus, eg food, water, sex

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37
Q

what is a secondary reinforcement?

A

a learned reinforcement. things like money, prestige, etc that do not have primary survival value but which we learn are valuable and so can still reinforce behavior

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38
Q

When positive reinforcement occurs, what happens and what is the result?

A

a reward (like food) is given, and it increases the likelihood of the behavior being performed again

39
Q

when negative reinforcement occurs, what happens and what is the response?

A

a negative stimulus is removed (eg loud siren) and it increases the likelihood of the behavior being performed again

40
Q

What are the two key characteristics of learning when a continuous reinforcement schedule is used?

A

the learning is very rapid, but is ‘fragile’, so that extinction is also much more rapid

41
Q

What are the two key characteristics of learning when a partial reinforcement schedule is used?

A

learning takes longer, but is much more resistant to extinction

42
Q

What are the four main types of partial reinforcement schedules?

A
  • fixed ratio schedules
  • variable ratio schedules
  • fixed interval schedules
  • variable interval schedules
43
Q

What is an example paradigm for fixed ratio reward schedules?

A

The bike incentive. Every 20 trips results in a reward (a 20:1 fixed ratio). This type of schedule is vulnerable to extinction once rewards are not delivered ‘on time’

44
Q

what is an example paradigm of a variable ratio reward schedule?

A

Slot machines that deliver payouts every n presses, but where n is an unpredictable number. This type of schedule is very resistant to extinction once learned

45
Q

What is an example of a fixed interval schedule?

A

tenured professors’ salaries. the paycheck will arrive every two weeks regardless of any behavior. this schedule does not produce good learning of desired behavior

46
Q

what is an example of a variable interval reward schedule?

A

bus waiting? (if you have a crappy bus system)

this schedule is also effective at training extinction resistant behaviors

47
Q

If you wanted to train an animal and have the learned behavior resist extinction for a long time, what are the best reinforcement schedules?

A

variable ratio schedule and variable interval schedule

48
Q

If you wanted to quickly train an animal, what would be the beast reinforcement schedule?

A

fixed ratio schedule, best would be 1:1 ratio aka continuous reinforcement

49
Q

What is the term to describe motivations like hunger or thirst?

A

instinctual drives or primary drives

50
Q

What is the term to describe motivations for things like money or fame?

A

secondary drives or acquired drives

51
Q

What group of theories of motivation does Fritz Heider’s ‘Balance Theory’ belong to?

A

the maintaining homeostasis motivation group

52
Q

What group of theories of motivation does Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum’s ‘Congruity Theory’ belong to?

A

the maintaining homeostasis motivation group

53
Q

What group of theories of motivation does Leon Festingers ‘Cognitive Dissonance Theory’ belong to?

A

the maintaining homeostasis motivation group

54
Q

What theory of motivation did Clark Hull propose?

A

That Performance = Drive x Habit

55
Q

What does the idea that Performance =Drive x Habit mean?

A

Individuals are motivated by drive and behave according to habit, which has satisfied that drive in the past. Eg, I am thirsty and sleepy, so I habitually make a cup of coffee

56
Q

What theory of motivation did Edward Tolman propose?

A

That Performance = Expectation x Value

57
Q

What does the idea that Performance = Expectation x Value mean?

A

People are motivated by goals they think they can actually achieve. For example, students who think college is unaffordable will not be as motivated to achieve good grades in high school

58
Q

What is the other name for the theory that Performance = Expectation x Value?

A

The Expectancy-Value theory

59
Q

What did Victor Vroom research?

A

He looked at how the Expectancy-Value theory applied to employee motivation in large companies.

60
Q

What theory of motivation did Henry Murray and David McClelland propose?

A

the need for achievement (nAch) theory

61
Q

What is the goal of the nAch theory of motivation?

A

to feel successful, both by achieving success and by avoiding failure

62
Q

How did John Atkinson’s research relate to the nAch theory?

A
  • people set intermediate goals with medium-low risk of failure so they feel accomplished at succeeding
  • but since success is so important, setting risky goals or working towards an unlikely success are avoided
63
Q

What theory of motivation did Neil Miller propose?

A

approach-avoidance conflict theory

64
Q

What was the approach-avoidance conflict theory?

A

the idea that certain goals have pros and cons, and that when far from completing the goal the individual will focus on the pros, but when close to completing the goal the individual will focus on the cons

65
Q

What is the Premack principle?

A

The idea that unpleasant activities can be reinforced by being rewarded afterwards with pleasant activities. Eg, spinach first then dessert

66
Q

Who proposed the theory of optimal arousal level for optimal performance?

A

Donald Hebb

67
Q

What did Donald Hebb propose?

A

He theorized that a medium amount of physical arousal will usually allow for the best performance. Simple and complex tasks may require different levels of arousal, but still somewhere in the middle.

68
Q

What relationship did the Yerkes-Dodson law specify? What is the relationship?

A

The relationship between arousal level and performance on tasks. The relationship is an inverted U, so that best performance requires moderate arousal, but very low and very high arousal impede performance.

69
Q

What is the name of the effect that there is an inverted U relationship between arousal and cognitive oerfirmance?

A

The Yerkes-Dodson law

70
Q

What type of information is acquired in perceptual or concept learning?

A

Basically semantic memories like historical information, stories, cognitive maps of areas. Things which are not stimulus-response chains.

71
Q

How did Edward Tolman contribute to research into concept/perceptual learning?

A

He performed a number of experiments showing how rodents could form cognitive maps of mazes without rewards, then draw on that knowledge later to gain rewards.

72
Q

What is the difference between avoidance conditioning and escape conditioning?

A

Escape conditioning just means that the individual will escape from an aversive stimulus, eg jumping when shocked. Avoidance conditioning involves presenting a neutral stimulus before the aversive stimulus (ex a light). The individual will condition to avoid the shock altogether by jumping before it is applied.

73
Q

Why is avoidance conditioning so resistant to extinction?

A

Individuals rarely ‘retest’ whether the conditioned stimulus still predicts the aversive stimulus. It is better to assume it still does than to risk being re-exposed to the aversive stimulus. This makes bad avoidance behavior (eg agoraphobia) difficult to unlearn.

74
Q

What does autonomic conditioning refer to?

A

Conditioning responses in the autonomic nervous system through training.

75
Q

What does the term ‘state dependent’ learning refer to?

A

It refers to learned behavior or information that is best recalled under the same physiological state as it was learned in.

76
Q

What type circumstances are required for latent learning?

A

Only that there is no reinforcement. For example, watching a new sport and slowly learning the rules and strategies involved.

77
Q

What is the opposite if intentional learning?

A

incidental learning

78
Q

What would be another way to describe incidental learning!

A

accidental learning or unintentional learning

79
Q

What associations are formed in incidental learning?

A

Unrelated items are associated or grouped together

80
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

The reemergence of an extinguished response even with no further training/conditioning

81
Q

What do you call it when a previously extinguished behavior is repeated even without refresher training?

A

spontaneous recovery

82
Q

In the context if conditioning, what is an overshadowing effect?

A

It is when a more prominent/salient stimulus interferes with an individual’s ability to associate a less salient stimulus with a response

83
Q

What is social learning theory?

A

the theory that people learn through their culture acceptable and unacceptable behaviors

84
Q

What is modeling?

A

learning behavior by imitating others

85
Q

Who was a major contributor to early research on modeling?

A

Albert Bandura

86
Q

What was the major study Albert Bandura conducted?

A

The Bobo doll study on modeling in children.

87
Q

What is observational learning?

A

Learning by watching others

88
Q

What is the Garcia effect?

A

The strong conditioned association between food/drink and nausea after only one negative exposure. This was proposed to be evolutionarily primed to form by John Garcia

89
Q

What research did John Garcia conduct?

A

He looked at the natural ability to form associations between certain types of stimulus-response pairs (food-nausea) but not others (light-nausea)

90
Q

For which group is the Garcia effect particularly pronounced?

A

Children

91
Q

Who was a premier in using electrodes to stimulate the reward centers of the brains of rodents?

A

M.E. Olds

92
Q

What is one way of dividing types of motor tasks?

A

2types:

  • continuos motor tasks (eg riding a bicycle)
  • discrete motor tasks (eg setting a table)
93
Q

Which is easier to learn, continuous or discrete motor tasks?

A

continuous

94
Q

What are the two categories of transfer learning?

A

positive and negative

95
Q

What does positive transfer mean?

A

When you have previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task

96
Q

What does negative transfer refer to?

A

when you have learned something previously that makes it more difficult to learn a new task

GRE Psychology (homemade) (17 decks)

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