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SfM > Last minute finals revision > Flashcards

Last minute finals revision Flashcards

1
Q

Where does the conversion of G-6-P to Glc occur in gluconeogenesis?

A

In the lumen of the ER using G-6-phosphatase

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2
Q

What does the pentose phosphate pathway produce?

A

NADPH

3C-7C sugars

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3
Q

What enzyme is used in step 6 of glycolysis?

A

Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase

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4
Q

What does the parasympathetic system do in the eye?

A

Muscarinic Receptors

  • > ciliary muscle contracts
  • > Eye focuses close up
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5
Q

What do B2 receptors do in the eye?

A

B-2 receptors

  • > Cililary muscle relaxes
  • > lens focusses far away
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6
Q

What do alpha-2 receptors do in the eye?

A

Alpha-2 receptor

  • > radial muscle contracts
  • > Pupil is dilated
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7
Q

What is the function of B1 receptors in the heart?

A

B1 receptor on pacemaker cells
-> Increases heart rate

B1 receptors on myocytes
-> increases contraction strength

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8
Q

What do B2 receptors do in the lungs?

A

B2 receptors

  • > relax smooth muslce
  • > aiways dilate
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9
Q

How can we use B1 receptors to slow the heart rate?

A

A beta-1 blocker (antagonist) such as atenolol would slow heart rate

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10
Q

How do we use B2 receptors to relieve ashtma ?

A

Beta2 agonist like salbutamol will dilate the airways

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11
Q

How does the sympathetic system affect the pancreas?

A

alpha receptors inhibit secreiton of pancreatic enzymes

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12
Q

Hwo does the sympathetic system affect the Gut?

A

Both alpha & BEta receptors decrease gut motility

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13
Q

How does the sympathetic system affect the bladder?

A

B2 receptors relax smooth muscle around the bladder to reduce the need to urinate
Alpha1 receptors contract the sphincter muscle also preventin urination.

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14
Q

How does the sympathetic system affect energy stored?

A

Beta 2 receptors stimulate glycogenolysis for Glc
Beta 1 recetpros stimulate lipolysis
Alpha 2 receptors inhibit lipolysis

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15
Q

How does the ANS affect your salivary glands?

A

Parasympathetic

  • > Muscairnic receptors
  • > thin watery secretion

Sympathetic

  • > Beta receptors
  • > Thick enzyme rich secretion
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16
Q

What do each sympathetic receptor generally do?

A

Alpha 1 = gluconeogenesis/vasoconstriction/sphincter constriction
Alpha 2 = Constricts muscle/inhibits energy
Beta 1 = Excitatory/ produces energy
Beta 2 = Smooth muscle relaxant/stimulate glycogenolysis

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17
Q

What do alpha 1 receptors do?

A

Constrict sphincter of urethra
Gluconeogensis/glycogenolysis
Vasoconstriction

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18
Q

What do alpha 2 receptors do?

A

Inhibits Lipolysis

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19
Q

What do beta 1 receptors do?

A

Increase heart rate/contraction strength

Increases lipolysis

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20
Q

What do beta 2 receptors do?

A

Relax smooth muscle

Stimulates glycogenolysis

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21
Q

Whats the use of blocking isocitrate dehydrogenase?

A

Blocking isocitrate dehydrogenase causes citrate build up
Citrate is then shuttled into the cytoplasm and inhibits phosphofructokinase
This stops excess glycolysis

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22
Q

Why block alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase?

A

α-ketoglutarate builds up

Its then used instead to produce amino acids

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23
Q

What is citrte used to produce?

A

Fatty Acids

Sterols

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24
Q

What is Oxaloacetate used for?

A

CAC
GLuconeogenesis
Making amino acids & pyrimidines

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25
Q

What is an anaplerotic reaction?

A

The act of replacing intermediates that have been removed for biosynthesis. (which is cataplerotic)
I.e. When oxaloacetate is removed from CAC for making amino acids, pyruvate carboxylase kicks in & replaces it direct from pyruvate

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26
Q

What are the steps of fatty acid synthesis?

A

Condensation
Reduction
Dehydration
Reduction

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27
Q

What are the steps of B-0xidation?

A

Oxidation
Hydration
Oxidation
Thiolysis

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28
Q

Where does the NADPH for FA syntehsis come from?

A

Some from Pentose phosphate pathway

Some from Citrate shuttle

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29
Q

What is the glucose uniporter called?

A

GLUT2

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30
Q

How does glycogen form?

A

1) Glycogenin binds UDP glucose into 8 unit primers
2) glycogen synthase extends the Glc chains
3) glycogen branching enzyme breaks the chain & makes branches

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31
Q

How is glycogen broken down?

A

1) glycogen phosphorylase removes single monomers as G-1-P
2) De-branching enzyme acts as a transferase moving 3 Glc from branch to chain
3) de-branching enzyme acts as a glucosidase breaking the alpha1-6 bond in branch.

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32
Q

What is hurlers syndrome?

A

Mucopolysaccharidoses.

I.e. a deficiency in the enzymes needed for GAG breakdown

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33
Q

What is Von Gierkes disease?

A

Liver G-6-Pase deficiency

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34
Q

What are the symptoms of vongierkes diases?

A
  • High liver gylcogen
  • Hypoglycaemia
  • lacticacidaemia
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35
Q

How do we treat von gierkes?

A

Regular carb feeding

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36
Q

What is mcardles disease?

A

Skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase deficiency

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37
Q

Symptoms & treatment for mcardles disease?

A
  • High muscle glycogen
  • Weakness/cramp & no glc increase after exercise

Avoid streneous activity & use second wind

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38
Q

What is poduced when Pyruvate is converted to Acetyl-CoA?

A

NADH & CO2

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

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39
Q

Which muscle filament is thick & which is thin?

A

Myosin is thick

Actin is thin

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40
Q

What coenzyme accepts electrons in complex 1 & 2 of the electron transport chain?

A

Coenzyme 10 or Ubiquinone

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41
Q

What carries electrons from complex 1&2 to complex 3?

A

Ubiquinol

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42
Q

What binds nucleotides together?

A

Phosphodiester bonds

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43
Q

What do pacemaker potentials do?

A

Trigger spontaneoulsy to provide breathing & cardiac ryhtyms

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44
Q

What directly generates the resting membrane potential?

A

The membranes permeability to K+ ions

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45
Q

What does ingesting alcohol use up (especially at teh liver)?

A

NAD+

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46
Q

Does the eukaryotic plasma membrane contain ribosomes or cholesterol?

A

It contains cholesterol but no ribosomes

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47
Q

What does Tetrodoxin do?

A

Blocks soidum channels preventing an AP at the NMJ

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48
Q

What does Joro spider toxin do?

A

Blocks calcium channels stopping transmitter relase at the NMJ

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49
Q

What does botulinum toxin do?

A

Disrupts transmitter release

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50
Q

What does curare do?

A

Blocks Ach receptors preventing an endplate potential

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51
Q

What does hemicholium do?

A

Blocks Choline reuptake preventing Ach production at the NMJ

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52
Q

What does Neostigmine do?

A

Its an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor which prevents breakdown of Ach and thus incerases transmission at the NMJ

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53
Q

What is a sarcomere & a Z band?

A

Sarcomere is the reapeating unit of striated muscle

A Z band is an area of dense proteins connecting the sarcomeres

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54
Q

What are the steps of the cross bridge cycle in skeletal msucle?

A
  • Ca2+ binds to troponin
  • Troponin moves tropomysosin exposing Actin binding site
  • Cross bridge binds
  • ADP +Pi released & cross bridge contracts
  • ATP binds to myosin & cross bridge detaches
  • ATP hydrolysed ready for next contraction
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55
Q

What receptors are involved in contraction at the muscle?

A

+ DHP receptors in the T tubules detect depolarisation

They activate ryanodine recptors which activate Ca2+ channels in the SR

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56
Q

What is the optimal length of a muscle?

A

The length that gives the grearest iosmetric tension

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57
Q

What is the MM equation?

A

Vo = Vmax[S] / Km + [S]

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58
Q

What is the lineweaver-burke equation?

A

1 / Vo = (Km / Vmax) (1 / [S]) + (1 / Vmax)

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59
Q

Whats a coenzyme?

A

Complex organic molecule usualy derived from vitamins. Such as NAD+/FAD+/Ubiquinone

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60
Q

Whats a prosthetic group?

A

Cofactor bound or tightly associated to an enzyme

61
Q

How can we see the direction of mechanical forces on bone?

A

In the direction of the bony trabeculae

62
Q

What bones grow by intramembranous ossification?

A

Flat Bones
Mandibles
Maxilla
Clavicle

63
Q

Whats the pocess of intramembranous ossification?

A

Mesenchymal cells develop into osteoprogenitor cells
Osteoprogenitor cells mature to osteoblasts
Osteoblasts lay down bone

64
Q

what hapens to residual mesenchymal stemm cells in intramembranous ossification?

A

They become blood vessels & marow

65
Q

What makes up the Bone ECM?

A

45% hydroxyapatite crystals for strength under compression
35% ctype 1 collagen for tension strength
20% water

66
Q

What connects lancunae?

A

Caniculi

67
Q

What are osteoclasts dervied from?

A

monocytes.macrophages

68
Q

What is pagets disease?

A

Where both bone formation & resorption increases

results in fragile misshapen bone

69
Q

How does menopause affect bone mass?

A

Oestrogen has an inhibitory affect on bone reabsoroption

So after menpause the bone mass decerases as oestrogen is no longer produced

70
Q

How much blood is in a new born babay?

A

350ml

71
Q

What do alpha & beta globulins do?

A

Transport vitamins

72
Q

What is the result of colloid oncotic pressure?

A

The volume of the plasma/ISF changes to generate equal concs of plasma proteins.

73
Q

What is fluid movement between ISF & plasma dependant on?

A

Capillary & interstitial hydrostatic pressures (CHP & IHP))
And intersitial/plasma protein concs

74
Q

What does hypoproteinemia cause?

A

Oedema due to a lack of oncotic pressure

75
Q

What are myeloid cells?

A

All blood cells bar lymphocytes

76
Q

What are the stem cells that produce myeloid cells?

A

Pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells

  • > Committed progenitor cells
  • > myeloid cell
77
Q

What is the steps in erythrocytes productiosn?

A

Pluripotent stem cell

  • > uncommitted progenitor cell
  • > committed progenitor cell
  • > Eryhtroblast
  • > Reticulocyte (blood)
  • > Erythrocyte (blood)
78
Q

How do neutrohils combat bacteria?

A

Phaocytosis

Neutrophil extracellula traps (NETS)

79
Q

Whena re eosinophils most abundant?

A

During allergic reaction

80
Q

What is a cytokine?

A

A protein or peptide thats released from one cell type & acts on another

81
Q

What 2 types o cytokines are involved in leukopoiesis?

A

Colony stimulating factors

Interleukins

82
Q

What is leukocytosis>

A

Increase in WBC number in blood

83
Q

What governs platelet formation?>

A

Thrombopoietin

84
Q

How does the haematocrit affet blood viscosity?

A

A 50% haematocrit increase doubles viscosity

85
Q

How does temp affect viscosity?

A

A 1C increases in temp decreases viscosity by 2% and vice versa

86
Q

How does cholesterol get into the membrane?

A

Inserts itself into the lipid layer

87
Q

Where are carbs in the membrane & what do they do?

A

Glycoprotein & glycolipid on extracellular surface

Self-vs-nonself recognition

88
Q

Why does myelin have a tiny protein content & inner mt membrane a lot?

A

In myelin protein is replaced by lipid for insulation of APs

In mt inner membrane protein is required for energy transduction

89
Q

Name some peripheral proteins & functions

A

G proteinsperform intracellular signalling functions
Collagen anchors cells to the ECM
Others join membrane & cytoskeleton

90
Q

What are the main determinants of tonicicty in the ECF & ICF

A

ECF =Na+ & Cl-

ICF = K+

91
Q

In what cases does positive feedback occur as part of normal physiology?

A
  • Ovulation
  • Sexual behaviour
  • Nerve AP
92
Q

How is water distrivuted in a normal 70Kg young man?

A

28L in ICF
11L in ISF (~80% of ECF)
3L in plasma (~20% of ECF)

93
Q

What compartments can be measured for fluid volume?

A 
Only those of which plasma is a component:
Plasma
ISF
ECF
TBW
94
Q

What are the criteria for a test substance when measuring fluid volvumes?

A 
Non-toxic
Unchanged by body
Musnt affect distribution of water
Evenly distributed in measured compartment
Easy to measure
95
Q

What do we use to measure plasma volume (PV)?

A

Dyes or radioactive labels attachedto plasma proteins

E.g. Evans blue or I25 albumin

96
Q

What can be used to measure ECF?

A

Needs to freely corss capilalry wall but not cell membrane:

Na+ or Cl- that are actively excluded from cells

97
Q

How do we measure TBW?

A

A loading dose of radioactive water

E.g. Deuterium oxide or ehavy water

98
Q

How do we determine the volume of ISF or ICF?

A 
ISF = ECF - PV
ICF = TBW - ECF
99
Q

How does determinin the volume of a compatement work?

A
  • Inject the test substance
  • Sample the fluid for test substance conc.
  • calculate Vd by:
    (amount injected - any excreted or metabolised) / conc.
    [V=n/c]
100
Q

What are the 3 types of fibrous joint?

A
  • Suture
  • Syndesmosis
  • Gomphosis
101
Q

What are the features of a synovial joint?

A

Always:

  • Fibrous capsule
  • Synovial membrane
  • Articular cartilage
  • Synovial Cavity

Sometimes:

  • Bursae
  • Ligaments
  • Articular Discs
102
Q

What is an anastomoses?

A

Where blood vessels branch alot then reconnect allowing multiple paths for blood to flow.

103
Q

Where are anastomoses commonly found?

A

Around joint as during movement some of the vessels will be compressed so the blood needs multiple paths to flow

104
Q

What is hiltons law?

A

A nerve supplying muscle that cross a joint will innervate the joint as well

105
Q

What is craniosynostosis?

A

Premature closure of sutures in the skull resulting in abnormal skull growth.

106
Q

What are hte outcomes of craniosynostosis?

A

Can be aesthetic
Can also affect brain development
Can incerase intercranial pressure leading to nerve damage and blindness etc

107
Q

What are occludin junctions?

A

Includes tight junctions that seal gaps between epithelial cells preventing backflow of ions

108
Q

What are the two cell-cell anchoring junctions?

A

Adherens connects actin filament bundles of adjacent cells

Desmosomes connect intermediate-filament bundles of adjacent clels

109
Q

What do desmosomes conenct?

A

Intermediate filaments such as keratin

110
Q

What do adherens connecT?

A

Actin filaments (type of microfilament)

111
Q

What do gap junctions allow?

A

Passage of small water soluble molecuels

112
Q

How are cells linked to the matrix?

A

Using the intermediate filaments by hemidesmosomes

Using actin filaments by actin linked adherenes

113
Q

What do lysosomes do?

A

Seperate enzymes from the rest of the cell.

Autophagy

114
Q

What are ciia & flagella made of?

A

Microtubules from the cytoskeleton

115
Q

Configuration vs conformation?

A 
Configuration = fixed
Conformation = specific and convertable without breaking bonds
116
Q

Difference between pyrimidine & purine?

A

Pyrimidine has a single ring

Purine has a double ring

117
Q

Exergonic/endergonic?

A
  • Exergonic pathways are catabolic

- Endergonic pathways are anabolic

118
Q

What is an important buffer systemin cells?

A

The phosphate buffer system

119
Q

What is an important buffer in plasma?

A

The bicarbonate buffer:
H2CO3 dissociates to HCO3-.
It absorbs pH changes caused by cellular products like lactic acid & ketone bodies.

120
Q

What are the levels of muscle fibre?

A

Fibril
Fibre
Muscle

121
Q

When does troponin move tropomyosin off the myosin binding site?

A

When bound to ca2+

122
Q

Name the types of contraction

A

Isotonic - shortening
Lengthening - DUh
Isometric - No lenth change

123
Q

Tension vs load?

A

Tension is force exerted by muscle

Load is tension exerted on muscle

124
Q

What is latent period>

A

Time between signal & start of contraction

Isometric has the shortest

125
Q

What is contration time?

A

Time between start of tension & peak tensoin

126
Q

What changes with increased load?

A

The contraction velocity & distance

127
Q

Whats the difference betwween fused & unfused tetanus?

A

Fused tetanus is a high & completely constatn contraction
Unfused is varying tension level within a certain range

128
Q

What causes tetanus contraction?

A

Repeated stimulus maintiaing a high level of calcium

129
Q

Why is fatigue useful?

A

It prevents us using up all our ATP & experiecning Rigor

130
Q

What causes fatigue i high intensity exercise?

A
  • Acidified proteins by lactic acid
  • ADP + Pi inhibiting myosin detachment
  • High [K] leads to depolaristion which causes conduction failure
131
Q

Waht causes fatigue in low intensity xerceise?

A

Low glycogen
Low blood Glc
Dehydration

132
Q

Other fatigue?

A

Central command Fatigue

Cerebral cortex cant excite motor neurones

133
Q

What causes atrophy?

A 
Disuse atrophy
Denervation atrophy (nerve/NMJ damage)
134
Q

How are filametns arranged differently in smooth msucle?

A

Diagonally across cells and anchored to membranes & cell structures

135
Q

Smooth muscle cross bridge cycle:

A
  • Ca2+ binds to calmodulin
  • Ca2+/Calmodulin complex binds to Myosin light chain kinase
  • Phosphorylates x-bridges with aTP
  • Phosphorylated X bridges bind to actin &
  • Myosin light chain phosphatase dephosphorylates X-bridges
136
Q

How do we maintain smooth muscle tension for a long time with relatively little ATP use?

A

You can slow the cycle by phosphorylating x-bridges while still bound to actin

137
Q

What is basal tone?

A

Basal level os smooth muscle contration graded by number of APs

138
Q

What do pacinian corpuscles repsond to?

A

Vibration/stretch

139
Q

Merkel receptors?

A

Texture/steady pressure

140
Q

Meissners corpuscle?

A

Flutter & stroking movement

141
Q

What is acuity?

A

The ability to locate a stimulus on the skin & differnetiate from others nearby.
Affected by convergence

142
Q

Lateral inhibitio?

A

Pathway close to centre of a stimulus inihbits its neighbours allowing more precise localisation of the stimulus

143
Q

How is the cortical body map distorted?

A

The most sensitive areas occupy the biggest space?

144
Q

Langerhans cells?

A

Immune surveillance

145
Q

How do hair follicles form?

A

Downgrowth of epithelial cells
Invasion of blood vessels
Hair growth

146
Q

How does the arrector pili muscle work?

A

Attached to follicle root & base epidermis

Contracts t straigten follicle

147
Q

What does a sebacseosu gland do?

A

Releases sebum onto hair follicles for no apparent reason

148
Q

What causes Body odour?

A

Protein rich secretion from apocrine sweat glands

149
Q

What do eccrine sweat glands secrete?

A

a watery secreiton

SfM (35 decks)

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