L26-L28 Flashcards
3 predictors of attraction
- physical attractiveness
- personality traits
- socially-oriented processes
3 universal aspects of physical attractiveness
- clear complexion
- bilateral symmetry
- average features
- very high correlation between cultural groups regarding perceived attractiveness of different targets
- based on evolutionary psychology (physical health = attractiveness)
Clear complexion
aspect of physical attraction
- skin signals health more directly than most visible aspects
- clearer faces > less clear faces
Bilateral symmetry
aspect of physical attraction
not as strong of a predictor as complexion (smaller effect size) as human faces are rarely perfectly symmetrical but high asymmetry signals health issues
e.g. genetic mutations, pathogens, stressors in the womb
Average features
aspect of physical attractiveness
- large deviations from average features are seen as less attractive
- average features are less likely to contain genetic abnormalities
Examples:
* morphed faces even out asymmetry, extreme features, deformities
* Eurasian faces are perceived as more attractive and healthier
Gene vs. allele
genetic fitness explanation
- gene: segment of a chromosome that codes for a function
- allele: alternate forms of a gene (homozygous or heterozygous)
Genetic fitness explanation for average features
aspect of physical attractiveness
- more heterozygosity when people from different geographical locations produce offspring
- thus, more resistance to infections, mutations, etc. and more survivability
- more survivability associated with higher attractiveness
4 personality traits that predict attraction
across cultural environments on all 6 continents
- emotional stability
- dependability
- kindness
- intelligence
2 socially-oriented predictors of attraction
i.e. aspects of social interactions that increase attraction
- propinquity effect
- similarity-attraction effect
human attraction, as well as appraising the suitability of a partner (romantic or platonic), is a social process!
Propinquity effect
socially-oriented predictor of attraction
- tendency to form interpersonal relationships with those we encounter more often (whether romantic or not)
- due to mere exposure effect
- primarily works for people for whom we initially had lightly negative, neutral, or positive impressions
mere exposure > greater attraction
Similarity-attraction effect
socially-oriented predictor of attraction
- tendency to become attracted to others if they share many similarities with us
- usually associated with independent self-construal
similarity plays a bigger role for important issues than for less important issues
4 basic elements of sociality
- communal sharing
- authority ranking
- equality matching
- market pricing
- all relationships are based on one or more of these elements
- these elements are universal but some variability exists
Communal sharing
element of sociality
- a common identity is formed based on something socially meaningful (e.g. loving dogs)
- pooled resources for everyone to use
- strongest groups are created via consubstantial assimilation
- high level of compassion for each other’s suffering (attack on one = attack on all)
usually have no explicit record of who’s contributing/taking away from pooled resources
Consubstantial assimilation
communal sharing
people in a group are perceived as sharing some aspect of their bodies, either in literal (e.g. genes) or metaphorical form (e.g. initiation rituals like blood pact)
Authority ranking
element of sociality
hierarchical ordering of members, leading to asymmetrical relationships with a lot of status differentiation
e.g. military and police forces
Status differentiation
authority ranking
- those with higher ranking have more privelege and prestige, and are entitled to more resources
- those with lower ranking are entitled to protection and care from those with higher ranking (which incentivizes them to stay in rank)
higher rank commands lower rank while lower rank obeys higher rank
Equality matching
element of sociality
- relationships are based on reciprocity and balance
- contributions are tracked and turn-taking is necessary to ensure equality matching
- “an eye for an eye”
found in traditional subsistence societies
Market pricing
element of sociality
- emphasizes reciprocity and balance through monitoring
- NOT reciprocity in kind and does not entail turn-taking
- instead, relies on arbitrary symbols (i.e. a currency) for interactions on the same turn
e.g. $10 for a goat
Chaebol
South Korean form of business organization
- a collection of corporations in different domains under one name (i.e. one family)
- runs on a hierarchy with a chairman and executives at the top
- superiors are supposed to act fatherly to workers (i.e. loving but stern)
- important to foster a sense of family within the company (e.g. mixing life inside and outside work)
e.g. Samsung has electronics, life insurance, medical centers, etc.
Simpatía
in Latin cultures (primarily Latin American countries)
- emphasis on social harmony and interpersonal attention to allow for smoother social interactions
- one who demonstrates simpatía is simpatico
- interpersonal attention: paying attention to what others are thinking and feeling
- simpatico: an adjective that describes someone who demonstrates empathy
How does simpatía differ from East Asian cultural contexts?
- bosses from Latin cultural contexts pay more attention to the goals of subordinates
- workers pay more attention to the emotional state of other workers and cooperate more
Latin cultural contexts have a more positive ideal affect and a combination of independent and interdependent self-construal
How is romantic love evolutionarily advantageous?
this is universal!
- romantic love encourages sexual intercourse, which allows for procreation
- acts like a glue that binds partners together to provide care for the baby throughout development
How have perspectives on love and marriage changed over time?
hint: change is not universal
people from collectivistic cultural contexts (e.g. India and Pakistan) increasingly perceive the necessity of romantic love in marriage
historically
* love and marriage did not mix (e.g. love being perceived as a reciprocity of the soul and marriage a contract)
* love is associated with negative consequences (e.g. unrequited, tragedies like suicide or death of lovers)
Different perceptions of love across cultural contexts
Hong Kong and Mainland China vs. US
- 69% of Chinese and HK love songs (vs. 37% of US songs) indicate negative outcomes of love
- 69% of Chinese and HK love songs (vs. 40% of US songs) indicate suffering as a consequence of love (e.g. sorrow, sadness, pain)
4 kinds of marriage systems across human history
- monogamy: most common
- polygyny: allowed by most preindustrial socities
- polyandry: in a few societies, usually in regions with scarce resources (e.g. fraternal polyandry)
- polygynandry: in religious enclaves and regions with extremely scare resources (e.g. Indian-Himalayan region)
polygynandry allows for more diversification of domestic economic activities (e.g. Indian-Himalayan region)
In-group vs. out-group
- group with whom we share a sense of belonging or feeling of identity (i.e. “us”)
- group with whom we see dissimilarity or lack of familiarity (i.e. “them’)
Independent self-construal
- easy for in-group to become out-group (and vice versa)
- in-groups have fewer demands on individuals
- individuals focus on personal goals and feel less commitment to in-groups
Interdependent self-construal
- stable border between in-group and out-group
- in-groups place great demands on individuals
- focus on group goals and harmony, often by suppressing individual goals
- feel more commitment to in-groups
2 domains in which self-construal impacts group relations
independent vs. interdependent
- day-to-day interactions
- attitudes toward in-groups vs. outgroups
How does self-construal impact day-to-day interactions?
independent vs. interdependent
- higher independent self-construal = more interaction partners, more interactions, more time
- higher interdependent self-construal = speak to fewer people to whom they feel closer to (i.e. in-group members)
3 kinds of behaviors that reflect attitudes toward in-group vs. out-group
depending on self-construal
according to Triandis et al.
- subordination
- superordination
- dissociation
Evidence comes from:
* nature of interactions with in/out-group
* comformity with in/out-group
* cooperation with in/out-group
Social distance
perceived psychological distance from others
- small = closer to in-group
- large = closer to out-group
Subordination
- showing deference to interaction partner
- not asserting oneself over interaction partner
- entailing cooperation
- US participants show equal subordination to in-group and out-group members
- Chinese participatns shoe more subordination to in-group members
Superordination
- asserting oneself over interaction partner
- demonstrating superiority
- US participants show equal superordination to in-group and out-group members
- Chinese participants show more superordination to out-group members
Dissociation
engaging in behavior that repels interaction partner (e.g. avoiding them, being rude, stealing resources from them)
- US participants show nearly equal dissociation to in-group and out-group members
- Chinese participants show more dissociation to out-group members
Conformity
social influence in which individuals change attitudes or behaviors to match with perceived norms
traditionally studied using the Asch line test
* examines whether participant conforms to answer of confederates on which line matches exemplar
2 factors that increase conformity
Asch line test
- Number of confederates: more confederates = more likely to conform
- Level of unanimity: holding group size constant, more united confederates = more likely to conform
Findings on conformity and non-conformity
based on meta-analysis across East Asian, African, South American, North American, and European samples
- greater collectivism = greater conformity
- non-conformity among non-Western participants usually when confederates are perceived as out-group members
- more recent the publication in US = less conformity
Cooperation
the ability to work together toward common goals
- essential for efficient functioning and survival of social groups
- often studied using economic games
General assumption about link between culture and cooperation
- individualism/independence is associated with more competitiveness
- collectivism/interdependence is associated with cooperation among individuals
Prisoner’s dilemma
economic game to assess cooperation
You and your partner have 2 options: betray (competitive choice) or stay silent (cooperative choice)
* betray each other = both receive moderate punishment
* you betray partner but partner stays silent = partner gets all the blame
* both stay silent = both receive lighter punishment
- best individual strategy is to be competitive but best collective strategy is to cooperate
- game can be played using different variables (e.g. money, goods)
Findings on effect of cultural priming on cooperation
among bicultural people (American Chinese)
- American prime: less cooperative with both friends (in-group) and strangers (out-group)
- Chinese prime: more cooperative with friends but less cooperative with strangers
- Neutral prime: overall high cooperation
- evidence for cultural mixing in bicultural people
- similar patterns of cooperation among Chinese and Mexican-American vs. Euro-American
Trust
and its 2 kinds (unrelated to in/out-group)
- one’s confidence that interaction partner will cooperate
- kinds: personalized and depersonalized
Personalized trust
- trust given to someone because partner is connected (in)directly to you
- trust is reserved for people in your network
- driven by monitoring
- monitoring: ability to get information about people connected to your network
- associated with interdependent self-construal
Depersonalized trust
- trust given to someone because partner shares group membership with you
- trust is reserved for people in the same category (e.g. Swiftie, Canucks fan)
- monitoring unimportant
associated with independent self-construal
