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PSYC 307 > L18-L20 > Flashcards

L18-L20 Flashcards

1
Q

Overconfidence

part of self-enhancement

A

having an unjustifiably positive belief in one’s characteristics or performance

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2
Q

3 kinds of overconfidence

A

overestimation, overplacement, overprecision

  • thinking that you did better than you actually did
  • thinking that you’re better than more people than you actually are
  • claiming certainty about your guess when you have no information that warrants that certainty
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3
Q

2 questions humans tend to ask regarding agency and control

A
  1. Can we change?
  2. Can the world around us change?

  • implicit theory of the self vs of the world: beliefs regarding whether attributes are malleable or fixed
  • different cultural environments foster different ways of exercising control
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4
Q

2 implicit theories of the self

A

incremental theory of the self and entity theory of the self

  • abilities are malleable and can be changed with efforts
  • abilities are largely fixed and reflect innate features of the self
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5
Q

2 implicit theories of the world

A

incremental theory of the world and entity theory of the world

  • world is flexible and responsive to our efforts to change it
  • world is fixed and it is beyond our ability to change it
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6
Q

Primary control

A
  • exercising agency by making changes in your environment to suit your needs
  • you assume an internal locus of control (i.e. seat of control is within yourself)

e.g. incremental theory of the world, entity theory of the self, independent view of self

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7
Q

Secondary control

A
  • exercising agency by adjusting goals and desires to control the psychological impact of reality
  • you assume an external locus of control (i.e. compelled by external events to change)

e.g. incremental theory of the self, entity theory of the world, interdependent view of the self

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8
Q

2 kinds of self-construals based on differences in choice-making

stem from differences in agency and control

A

independent self-construal and interdependent self-construal

  • important decisions must be made by ourselves
  • important decisions often made by others close to us
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9
Q

Findings on engagement in a game depending on who is making choices

among Europeans and Asians

choice made by themselves, strangers, or their social circle

A
  • European Americans are more engaged when there’s personal choice
  • Asian Americans are more engaged when there’s ingroup choice
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10
Q

What are the consequences of having too many choices vs too little choices?

i.e. paradox of choice

A
  • too much choice depletes our mental resources
  • too little choice leads to learned helplessness
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11
Q

Sensation

A

sensory signals reaching the detectors in our bodies and eventually reaching our brains

e.g. light waves hitting the retina; sound waves hitting the ear drum

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12
Q

Perception

A

process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets the sensory information it receives from sense organs

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13
Q

3 reliable differences in perception due to cultural experience

A
  1. susceptibility to optical illusions
  2. pictorial depth perception
  3. object vs field focus
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13
Q

2 hypotheses regarding susceptibility to optical illusions

A
  1. foreshortening hypothesis
  2. carpentered world hypothesis

how we see the 3D world is developed through experiences and learning (e.g. using 2D visual cues)

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14
Q

Foreshortening hypothesis

A

people who reside in more open environments are more susceptible to optical illusions

e.g. horizontal-vertical illusion: tendency to overestimate vertical line length relative to horizontal line of the same length

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15
Q

Carpentered world hypothesis

A
  • optical illusions reflect differences in our physical environment
  • differences in the physical environment then lead to differences in susceptibility

e.g. Müller-Lyer illusion

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16
Q

5 kinds of depth cues in 2D images

that help with perceiving 3D images

A
  1. relative size of objects
  2. object superimposition
  3. vertical position
  4. linear perspective
  5. texture gradient

used in context with one another

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17
Q

Relative size

pictorial depth cue

A

more likely to perceive bigger objects to be closer to us than smaller objects

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18
Q

Object superimposition

pictorial depth cue

A

an object closer to us is superimposed onto (i.e. overlaps) an object that is farther away

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19
Q

Vertical position

pictorial depth cue

A

an object higher up in the visual field is farther from us

20
Q

Linear perspective

pictorial depth cue

A

2 parallel lines placed on a 2D medium recede into a vanishing point at the horizon

21
Q

Texture gradient

pictorial depth cue

A

greater detail when an object is closer to us than when a object is farther away (texture becomes more grainy)

22
Q

How is sensitivity to depth cues assessed in Western education?

A
  • examining how quickly people interpret an “immposible” figure (e.g. 2-pronged trident) by copying it
  • those exposed to Western education take longer to copy the figure
  • others simply see it as a series of lines and figures, thus they are able to copy it with less errors
23
Q

One-point perspective vs oblique perspective

i.e. in perspective vs not in perspective

A
  • everything recedes into a vanishing point
  • everything is parallel and there are no receding lines
24
Q

Holistic thinking and field dependence

A
  • perceive scenes and situations as an integrated whole, paying more attention to the context surrounding focal object
  • tendency to categorize objects based on relationships among objects in their environment

  • related to collectivism/interdependence
  • more characteristic of children from China and Indigenous groups
25
Q

Analytical thinking and field independence

A
  • perceive objects with a focus on specific elements rather than contexts, and use fixed abstract rules to explain and predict behavior
  • tendency to categorize objects based on common traits

  • e.g. focus on internal traits and dispositions
  • related to individualism/independence
  • more characteristic of children from the U.S.
26
Q

Meaning of the location of the horizon in East Asian vs Western drawings

Masuda et al.

A
  • East Asian drawings have higher horizons compared to Western drawings, which provides more space to show relationships between objects
  • Higher horizons are indicative of holistic thinkers

  • larger difference found in drawings of artists compared to non-artists but still statistically significant
27
Q

Fundamental attribution error

attribution: ascribing where responsibilities lie (e.g. reason behind a person’s behavior can be internal or external)

A

tendency to put too much focus on someone’s internal dispositions as attributions for one’s behavior, underestimating the impact of external/contextual factors

  • despite explicit external constraints
  • associated with analytic thinking style
28
Q

Difference in attributions between Americans and Indians

A

Indians are more likely to make situational attributions while Americans are more likely to make dispositional attributions, especially adults

socialization seems to be an important driving force

29
Q

What 3 world views does thinking style affect?

analytical vs holistic thinking styles

A

attribution, categorization, and dialecticism

30
Q

Dialecticism`

and two kinds of dialecticism

A
  • thinking style affects perceptions of patterns and relationships in the world (e.g. contradictions)
  • different philosophical traditions allow people to be more/less tolerant of contradictions

  1. traditional laws of thought: no tolerance for contradiction
  2. naïve dialecticism: tolerance for contradiction
31
Q

What are contradictions?

A
  • things that are opposite to each other
  • things that are inconsistent with each other
  • suggest that one is correct and the other is incorrect
32
Q

3 traditional laws of thought

no tolerance for contradiction

A
  1. law of identity
  2. law of non-contradiction
  3. law of excluded middle

  • rooted in Ancient Greek philosophy
33
Q

Law of identity

traditional laws of thought

A
  • “whatever is, is”
  • each thing has its own attributes and characteristics
  • X = X
34
Q

Law of non-contradiction

traditional laws of thought

A
  • “nothing can both be and not be”
  • contradictory statements are mutually exclusive (i.e. only one can be true, not both)
  • example: X > Y and X < Y
35
Q

Law of excluded middle

traditional laws of thought

A
  • “everything must either be or not be”
  • contradictory statements are collectively exhaustive (i.e. account for all possible outcomes)
  • example: X > Y and X ≤ Y (one of which must be true)
36
Q

3 principles of naïve dialecticism

tolerance for contradiction

A
  1. principle of change
  2. principle of contradiction
  3. principle of relationship

  • East Asian tradition and some forms of South Asian Buddhist thought have relatively higher acceptance of contradiction
37
Q

Principle of change

naïve dialecticism

A
  • reality is a changing process, not a static process, making reality fluid
  • A ≠ A

negation of law of identity

38
Q

Principle of contradiction

naïve dialecticism

A
  • because change is constant, contradiction is constant
  • opposite poles complement and depend on each other for existence
  • example: A = B and A ≠ B

  • things are constantly changing to what they are and what they aren’t
  • negation of the law of non-contradiction
39
Q

Principle of relationship

naïve dialecticism

A

because change and contradiction are constant, everything is related and cannot be isolated into independent elements

when one thing changes, everything around it changes too

40
Q

Income inequality

A
  • uneven distribution of income within a population
  • measures the difference in people’s economic well-being within a group
41
Q

Wealth inequality

A

uneven distribution of assets within a population (e.g. income, property, cars, businesses)

42
Q

What is income inequality associated with?

A
  • power inequality in society
  • tangible consequences in society

e.g. life expectancy, infant mortality, teen births, imprisonment, homicides, obesity, mental illness, etc.

43
Q

Authoritarianism

and outcomes

A

obedience of authority figures
* intolerance of minorities (e.g. ethnic, religious)
* support for more aggressive use of military force
* more likely to condone illegal government behavior

illegal government behavior becomes legitimized as them exercising their authority

44
Q

Relationship between income inequality and power inequality

in relation to authorianism

A
  • greater the income inequality, greater the power differential in society
  • greater the experience with power difference, the greater its acceptance as a natural phenomena

those with higher income can do things in society for their own benefit

45
Q

Relationship between power inequality and political engagement

A
  • more acceptance of authoritarianism leads to more fatalism about one’s situation
  • less political engagement among those with less power leads to greater political inequality

those with less power exhbit less political interest, less political discussion, and less electoral participation

46
Q

Differences in behavior and psychological tendencies among rich and poor people

based on how they perform in studies

A
  • rich: more independent self-construal, dispositional attributions, sense of personal control, and unethical behavior
  • poor: more interdependent self-construal, situational attributions, empathy and helping behavior

poor also exhibit less engagement with and benefit from educational and occupational opportunities (which are predominantly middle to upper class)

47
Q

Behavioral tendencies of people in lower SES

A

more likely to engage in behaviors perceived to exacerbate situation

e.g. having many children, non-optimal financial decisions, harmful health behaviors

PSYC 307 (11 decks)

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