L2 Diabetes Mellitus Flashcards
Diabetes mellitus involves insufficient insulin secretion and reduced responsiveness to ______.
insulin
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by insulin resistance and progressive ______ dysfunction.
beta-cell
Metformin belongs to the ______ class and works by activating AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK).
biguanide
AMPK activation by metformin reduces hepatic glucose production and increases ______ glucose uptake.
peripheral
One advantage of metformin over sulfonylureas is that it does not increase plasma ______ levels.
insulin
Metformin’s most common side effects are ______ related, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
gastrointestinal
Insulin secretion is stimulated by increased blood glucose and the hormone ______ from the intestines.
GLP-1
In insulin release from beta cells, glucose enters the cell via ______ transporters.
GLUT2
In beta cells, glucose metabolism increases ATP levels, leading to the closure of ______ channels and membrane depolarization.
ATP-sensitive potassium
Sulfonylureas bind to the ______ receptor on beta cells, closing potassium channels and stimulating insulin release.
sulfonylurea
Second-generation sulfonylureas, such as glyburide and glipizide, are commonly used to treat ______.
type 2 diabetes
Metformin is contraindicated in patients with ______ impairment due to the risk of lactic acidosis.
renal
The use of iodinated contrast dyes in imaging studies can increase the risk of ______ when used with metformin.
renal dysfunction
Metformin reduces glucose production in the ______, helping to lower blood glucose levels.
liver
Sulfonylureas primarily stimulate insulin secretion from ______ cells in the pancreas.
beta
Sulfonylureas are associated with an increased risk of ______, especially in elderly patients.
hypoglycemia
Thiazolidinediones, such as pioglitazone, are ligands of the ______ receptor, which regulates genes involved in glucose metabolism.
PPAR-gamma
Thiazolidinediones reduce insulin resistance by decreasing free ______ levels and increasing insulin-dependent glucose uptake.
fatty acid
Thiazolidinediones increase insulin sensitivity in tissues such as skeletal muscle and ______.
adipose tissue
Thiazolidinediones are contraindicated in patients with ______ due to the risk of fluid retention and heart failure.
heart failure
Rosiglitazone, a thiazolidinedione, has been associated with an increased risk of ______.
myocardial infarction
Repaglinide is a ______ channel modulator used to stimulate insulin release in a glucose-dependent manner.
KATP
Meglitinides, such as repaglinide, are particularly effective in controlling ______ blood glucose levels.
postprandial
Sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors work by reducing glucose reabsorption in the ______.
kidneys
SGLT2 inhibitors can lead to increased risk of ______ infections due to glucosuria.
urinary tract
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors increase incretin levels, leading to enhanced ______ secretion in response to meals.
insulin
Patients with type 1 diabetes require ______ insulin therapy to maintain blood glucose control.
exogenous
Basal insulin is administered to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting, while ______ insulin covers postprandial glucose increases.
bolus
The preferred route of insulin administration is via ______ injection.
subcutaneous
Insulin analogs, such as lispro and aspart, have a rapid onset of action and are used to control ______ glucose levels.
postprandial
Insulin dosing must be adjusted based on blood glucose monitoring to avoid the risk of ______.
hypoglycemia
Patients with type 2 diabetes often require ______ therapy as their condition progresses.
insulin
The risk of developing type 2 diabetes is strongly associated with ______, a condition marked by excess body fat.
obesity
Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists are used to enhance insulin secretion and suppress ______ secretion.
glucagon
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors prolong the activity of ______, leading to improved insulin release.
incretins
The main side effect associated with sulfonylureas is ______, which results from increased insulin release.
hypoglycemia
Type 1 diabetes is characterized by the destruction of pancreatic ______ cells.
beta
Metformin is often used in combination with other antidiabetic agents, such as ______, to improve glycemic control.
sulfonylureas
Patients on insulin therapy should regularly monitor their ______ levels to prevent hypoglycemia.
blood glucose
Exercise improves insulin sensitivity by increasing the number of ______ transporters in muscle cells.
glucose
SGLT2 inhibitors lower blood glucose by promoting glucose excretion through the ______.
urine
Pioglitazone, a thiazolidinedione, activates ______ receptors to reduce insulin resistance.
PPAR-gamma
Patients with type 1 diabetes require daily injections of ______ insulin to maintain glucose control.
basal
The use of ______ insulin is important for controlling blood glucose levels after meals.
bolus
Patients with diabetes are at increased risk of ______ due to damage to blood vessels and nerves.
foot ulcers
Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) is used to assess long-term ______ control in patients with diabetes.
glycemic
Incretins, such as GLP-1, enhance glucose-dependent insulin secretion and ______ glucagon release.
inhibit
Thiazolidinediones are associated with weight gain due to increased ______ retention.
fluid
Insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes is primarily seen in muscle, liver, and ______ tissue.
adipose
Beta-cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes leads to insufficient insulin release in response to ______ glucose levels.
elevated
Incretin-based therapies, such as DPP-4 inhibitors, increase the levels of hormones that enhance insulin secretion in response to ______.
meals
