IT systems in organization Flashcards
Incidents can involve ___ as well as ____.
technical problems
security issues
eg. denial of service attack and virus infection
technical failures, such as __ ___ ___ can result in data loss if no precautionary measures were taken
hard disk crashes.
unexpectedly high network traffic can result in ___ ___
network overload
___ ___ tries to resolve these problems without disturbing the general operation of the organization
incident management.
incident management refers to a ___ __ ___
disaster recovery plan
this is occurs when an organization’s normal operations cannot continue due to an unexpected incident.
incident detection.
the incident is allocated to an established category.
is the incident a hardware problem?
or is it a software-related issue?
is the incident the result of a security breach?
a proper classification is necessary in order for the incident to be dealt with properly.
incident classfication
the cause of the incident are now investigated and the incident is analysed
incident diagnosis.
at this point, the team tries to tackle the roots of the problem
the team is not only concerned with fixing the symptoms but also with treating the underlying causes of the problem.
incident resolution
after the system resumes normal operations, it may be necessary to perform final tests to check whether the problem has indeed been resolved.
closure
the incident must be documented.
this helps build knowledge in the organization so that should a similar incident occur in the future, it can be resolved more quickly
tracking
in some cases, the incident is so severe or the consequences of the incident so far-reaching that the designated people are not capable of handling the problem. this is known as ?
escalation
a ___ ___ is an information system that is still in active use even though there are more modern alternatives available
legacy system
the existing system may be too expensive to replace.
include training cost, cost of the adapting the organization’s processes to the new software and the cost of replacement
replacement too expensive.
an alternative, off-the-shelf software program may simply not exist.
this may be the case if the legacy software was developed specifically for the needs of a particular company
no alternatives available
the legacy system may still fulfill the organization’s requirements.
the legacy system works, does its job and so there is no need to replace the system
meets requirements
the legacy system has been well tested and has proven its reliability.
the transition to a new system would be too risky.
the space shuttle, for example still uses some 1970s technology for the IT systems.
proven reliability
an organization’s software may be tightly integrated with the organization’s operations.
so any new software systems may require restructuring of the organization.
integration into the organization
IT systems help in the planning of budgets and in administering the money spent and earned by the organization. Statistics help the organization’s management to maintain an overview of its financial situation.
Administration of finances
Companies can use IT to predict the effect of changing competition, as well as changing economic situations.
Prediction and forecasting of trends
Databases are used to store and maintain the stock of warehouses. When the stock level drops to a critical value, the IT system will automatically reorder that product.
Stock management of products
Industrial and consumer Products can now be designed directly on the computer using CAD (computer-aided design). Manufacturing organizations may employ IT to control manufacturing machines (such as robots).
Product design and manufacturing
IT can improve an organization’s internal organizations communication, as well as communication with its customers and the public, irrespective of its geographic location. Potential customers requesting specific product information can now obtain this information over the company’s website.
Customer contact:
IT systems can store and maintain large amounts of data. Electronic files can replace paper-based files. Electronic files require no physical space and have the large advantage of being searchable. Organizations use electronic files to store technical documentation, billing information and customer data.
Storage of large amounts of data:
The boom in IT has resulted in the emergence of new services and products. For example, Web design firms help companies that do not yet have a Web presence to get online. Consultancy firms offer advice on how IT systems can be most effectively implemented in a company.
Many organizations offer services that are related directly to IT
This policy outlines how the staff members of an organization may or may not use the resources of the Internet. An organization may restrict Internet usage in order to ensure that staff members do not spend too much time surfing the Web or writing private e-mail messages. Restricting the use of the Web also increases the security of the organization’s Intranet by reducing the chance of viruses and malware being installed on the computers.
Internet usage polic
This policy regulates who is responsible for installing and maintaining the software on an organization’s Intranet. A company may absolutely prohibit the installation of software by its staff members. This is to prevent software piracy problems and to reduce the problems of malware and spyware being introduced into the company’s network.
Software installation policy
Companies may store large amounts of data about its staff members, customers and suppliers. A company’s privacy policy outlines the types of data that the company collects and the measures taken to protect this data from unauthorized access. The privacy policy also provides some comfort to the people whose data is stored, reassuring them that data security standards are in place.
privacy policy
This policy regulates which staff members are authorized to access the different data stored on the organization’s servers. Such restrictions help improve the security and privacy of the data. The accessibility policy may also outline the Web standards that are to be used when designing an organization’s website. The government websites of many countries must follow accessibility standards to ensure that people with disabilities can access the data without problems.
accessibility policy
The IS manager of an organization is responsible for the planning and coordinating of all of an organization’s computer-related activities. The IS manager is continuously communicating with the organization’s management about IT strategy planning and the measures needed to realize these goals. The IS manager, therefore, has to maintain a good overview of many IT-related issues. However, the IS manager is not necessarily responsible for actually implementing the necessary changes. For example, it is not the task of the IS manager to physically install new IT systems. This is the task of the support staff
Information system (IS) manager
The support staff are responsible for the handson technical maintenance work of the computer systems. They are given certain rights and permissions to install software programs and to set up computer systems.
support staff
A network manager is responsible for installing, maintaining and operating an organization’s LAN. They must also manage the support staff team that maintains the network. Additionally, the network manager must ensure that the network is secure and that the appropriate measures are implemented to prevent data loss in case of a network crash. The network manager needs to communicate with the IS manager to provide the necessary information on the status of the current system. The IS manager will then use this information for planning the organization’s IT strategy.
network manager.
The database administrator is responsible for managing an organization’s database management system (DBMS), More specifically, a database administrator must design, implement, operate and repair the organization’s database. The database administrator has to rely on a functioning network (which is provided by the network manager and his/her team). The database administrator may also be in charge of support staff, for assistance.
data administrator
: In smaller organizations, such as a school, a single person may be responsible for the different IT-related tasks. This person is often referred to as the ‘system administrator’ or the ‘sysadmin’
system administrator
The manager is responsible for overseeing the different software development projects that are undertaken by the organization. The manager must ensure that the different project teams have the necessary resources to complete their work. It is possible that the different software development projects are interlinked and dependent on one another. In this case, the manager must ensure that these projects are Coordinated appropriately so that one project team does not have to wait for another team’s results.
manager
: The programmers are responsible for the creation of the computer software program. Although they do not work completely independently they must strictly adhere to the guidelines laid out by the project manager. The Programmers have to follow good programming practice in Order to create software that is easily maintained and free of bugs. They must also write technical documentation about the new software so that future programmers are able to maintain the software program easily.
programmer
The analyst assesses the current situation and Prepares the specifications and requirements that must be met by the new software. The software analyst liaises between the programmer/developer and the end-user. The analyst is responsible for communicating the needs of the end-users and the requirements of the organization to the software developers
analyst
The project manager coordinates and manages a particular software project. Unlike the manager, the project manager overlooks the development of only a particular section of the software project.
project manager.
list the stage in SDLC
- requirements analysis
- project design
- product design
- product development.
- testing
- operations and maintenance
list the names of the stage of the waterfall model of SDLC
- requirements analysis
- design
- implementation
- testing
- maintenance.
the purpose of a project is to bridge a gap between the currently existing situation and the preferred future state. Why is the current situation unsatisfactory? What are the problems that the client is faced with? During this project initiation phase, it becomes evident that something needs to be done to improve a certain situation, either for an external client or internally for the company itself. At this stage, company management decides that a project team must be established to solve the problem.
- Requirements analysis: Analysis of the current situation
- Once the decision has been taken to proceed with the project, the organizational requirements need to be analysed. What are the client’s/company’s needs and what should the new product achieve? The organizational requirements address the needs of the organization. At this stage we are not yet concerned with the actual product but rather with the gap between the current situation and the desired future situation.
Requirements analysis: Organizational requirements
The feasibility study analyses whether the project can be afforded. Developing a new product consumes human and financial resources. How much will it cost to carry out the project? How much restructuring of the organization is necessary? The feasibility study should not only consider the actual costs of product development but also the follow-up expenses. Staff members may need to be trained and there may be a temporary reduction in productivity while they adjust to the new system. The feasibility study also assesses if the benefits are worth the investment.
- Requirements analysis: Feasibility study
The organization tries to identify several possible solutions that meet the organizational requirements and feasibility constraints. Some solutions may be very cost-effective but may not meet the requirements of the organization. Other solutions may be simply too expensive, The advantages and disadvantages of the different IT solutions must be compared first before a choice is made.
- Requirements analysis: Identification ofpossible
- During this stage, the project team comes up with a detailed specification of what the final product should be able to achieve. The requirements specification is a detailed list that describes the characteristics of the product. What features should the product have? What features are unnecessary? The requirements of the product must fulfil the requirements of the organization.
Requirements analysis: Requirements specification
The organization decides which one ofthe possible IT solutions should be followed. The choice of the IT solution must best suit the organizational requirements and feasibility of the product. The project team must then propose the chosen IT solution to company management, which is then responsible for supplying the necessary financial and human resources to proceed with the project.
- Requirements analysis: Justification ofpreferred
IT solution
Even before the product can be designed, the project team must devise a project plan. This project plan contains a breakdown of who is responsible for what part of the project. The project plan contains a detailed list of human resources available, as well as the responsibilities and duties of each of the staff members.
- Project design: Project plan (the who, why, what, when and how part of the project)
Constraints are those factors that limit the project in some way. Constraint management manages these problems. During this stage, the project team discusses issues, such as financial and technical limits, that can be encountered during the project. What should be done when there are not enough resources available to continue the project? What are the risks of the project? How can the communication and information flow between the different team members and the client be maintained? This stage is not too concerned with the actual development of the product since it must first be confirmed that the project is viable. This stage also includes procurement planning, which refers to the obtaining of resources to keep the project going.
- Project design: Constraint management and project goals
The project planning stages are completed by writing a project initiation document. This document summarizes the findings of the previous stages. The project initiation document contains details on the project goals and the scope of the project. Additionally, the document mentions how the project is organized and how the constraints are to be managed by the project team.
- Project design: Project initiation document
At this point the development team investigates different design options. The product is now designed from a logical perspective. What are the different parts of the new software? What alternatives are there? The design team does not worry about how the product should be made from a technical
- Product design: Design considerations
At this stage the project team finally concentrates on the technical realization of the features of the previous stage. How should the data be stored? How should the user interface be designed? One should not forget that the team is still planning the product. So far, a working example of the product (i.e. a prototype) does not yet exist. The final product is still an idea. Notice the strict separation between the design considerations (step 10) and the technical design (this step) ofthe product. It makes no sense to worry about the technical aspects ifit has not yet been decided what the product should actually be like
. product design: Design of inputs, data structure, processes, outputs and user interface
prototyping refers to the development of a first version of the IT solution. In the case of software development, it can refer to the user interface of the program, even if the remaining program does not work yet. This stage allows for the product to be tested and to ensure that the product meets the expectations of the users and the requirements. It is during this stage that any adjustments are made before the complete IT solution is developed.
. Product design: Prototyping
Development of the ITsolution Once testing of the prototype and final adjustments are completed, the IT solution is implemented and put into practice. The project team develops the IT solution and prepares it for testing. The product developers base the design on the technical specifications outlined during step 11.
13, Product development
The product is then tested by people who were not part Of the product development. This can be the end-users or an independent test team. The product does not leave the Organization but is tested at the site of the developer. This type of testing is referred to as alpha testing. The purpose
14 Testing: Initial testing, alpha testing
Towards the end of the PDLC, traditional product design methods are used to test the product. Ifthe product meets the criteria, then the product is accepted and delivered to the client. More modern design approaches integrate testing and quality assurance into every stage of product development and not just at the end.
Testing: Quality assurance and quality control
Implementation After extensive testing, the product is then shipped to the client. The software needs to be installed and the hardware must be set up appropriately. The client starts to use the
Operations and maintenance
: During this method, the operation of the old system is stopped abruptly and the new system is put into
operation at full scale. the advantage of this method are that the staff can concentrate exclusively on the new system and that the old system does not have to be maintained anymore, which saves costs. The disadvantage is that the transition can be risky because the new system may not operate flawlessly from day one. Furthermore, direct transition does not allow for much testing and the system must work reliably from the beginning
direct changeover
During this implementation method the old system is gradually phased out of operation while the new one is slowly introduced. Although this method reduces the risk should the new system not operate as expected, it requires the company to have two software systems in operation for a period of time. It is also necessary to gradually place more emphasis on the new system and this transition must be managed properly.
Phased changeover
Here the two systems operate in parallel for a certain period of time. This approach is less risky because if the new system does not work well, the old system is still available. This approach is expensive, however. As two systems must run at the same time, more staff and resources are required.
parallel running changeover.
Staff training and support should not only take place immediately after the new system is introduced but should also accompany the new system throughout its period of operation. Some companies invest enormous sums of money into a new system and then ignore the importance of end-user training. As a consequence, there may be a dramatic decrease in staff productivity once the new software is introduced. This is because the staff must get used to the new system and require more time correcting their mistakes. Therefore, the company should also provide staff support and other help for the company’s end-users.
Operations and maintenance: Training and support
Throughout the development of the new system, the project team writes many technical documents. These documents are intended for communication within the project team and with the management of the organization. These documents are often not directly useful for supporting the end-users and the staff members who are responsible for system maintenance. All thf rough product development someone should be responsible or establishing end-user documentation, such as tutorials and help systems. If the documentation is written at the very end, then much unnecessary time may have been lost
. Operations and maintenance: Documentation to support the new ITsystem
Beta testing refers to the testing of the product at the site of the end-users. The software is placed into operation under realistic working conditions. Bugs and errors must be communicated to the development team, who then use the feedback to improve the software.
Operations and maintenance: Beta testing
is the removal of faults and the installation of updates after the software’s delivery to the clients. Maintenance also improves the performance of the system and, depending on the maintenance contract, can also include extra features. The duration and type of service provided is outlined in the service level agreement (SLA) between the client and the provider of the maintenance service.
Operations and maintenance: Maintenance Maintenance
The product phase out is the end of the life of the product. It occurs when the product is put out of operation. The phase out also has to be managed properly. Obsolete software and data has to be properly unzinstalled and deleted so that no unauthorized people have access to the data. In many cases, the phase out occurs with the introduction of a new system. The transition to the new system, including data export and import, must be performed in an organized manner.
Phase out
The scope includes the goals and objectives of the project. What is the nature of the product to be realized?
scope
Every project has a limited time span. The customers are waiting for the finished product.
Time
If the project becomes too expensive, then the organization will not be able to generate much profit
Budget
The waterfall model breaks the project into distinct stages that can be managed separately. One team may
be responsible for the requirements analysis while another team can then proceed with the design and implementation of the product.
Distinct stages
The clear, linear approach makes it easy to plan for human resources and the amount of time required.
Easy project planning:
Potential problems must be identified early in the project. This can prevent unnecessary problems later on.
Early problem identification:
The waterfall model requires the team members to write detailed documentations. The team members refer to this documentation throughout the project.
Documentation is enforced:
____is a software design methodology that tries to overcome the rigidity of the waterfall model. Agile deVelopment is an iterative methodology
agile development
Agile development includes fast feedback cycles with the client. Developer—client interaction occurs frequently and the developing team can respond quickly to the needs of the clients.
client interaction
Frequent contact and communication with the client minimizes the possibility that the product does not meet the requirements.
meeting of client’s needs
The fast feedback cycles make faster product development possible. The waterfall model, in contrast, requires extensive initial planning before the actual product is made, which takes more time.
faster product development
Team members communicate with each other more directly and not as much through written documentation.
teamwork
Development of the product proceeds with minimal planning. Product development can therefore be quite unstructured because the product’s specifications are not clear at the beginning.
lack of structure.
and little documentation because of face to face communication with clients.
The development process flows through a series Of stages. Once a stage has been completed, it is not easily possible to go back.
linear
¥ Progress is measured based on the documents produced at each stage.
The project is planned out from the very beginning. The project team assumes that the client already knows the requirements from the very beginning. This is, however, often not the case.
predictive
: Feedback cycles are introduced. This permits the project management team to continually adapt the product to the client’s needs.
iterative
Progress is measured based on meeting the client’s needs and the goals of the company.
Long-term plans do not exist. Rather, the team tries to continually respond to the client’s changing needs. The client becomes aware of their needs and requirements as the roduct is develo ed.
adaptive
PRINCE2
Projects IN Controlled Environments version 2
____is a standardized project management method. It is the second version of this method (hence, the 2 in the term).
PRINCE2
The objective of PRINCE2 is to ensure the quality of projects. PRINCE2 addresses the following issues.
Which people are needed when and where in a project? Are some people overworked while others have nothing to do?
coordination of people
Are there certain activities in the project that depend on other ctivities? For example, the software programmers are unable to start their work unless the specifications have been completed.
coordination of activities
: What is the overall structure of the project like? What are the project’s relevant milestones and their deadlines?
project design
Who monitors and controls the project?
Who is accountable and what measures can be taken?
project supervision
If there are unexpected changes in the project, how can it be adjusted? Should the client’s requirements change during the project, what measures can be taken to make the appropriate adjustments?
project adjustment
): The project management team is responsible for directing the project. This process happens throughout the project, from start to finish.
DP: directing the project
This is the first process during which the groundwork for all future project steps is prepared. This process ensures that all the relevant information is available for the future project events. It is during this stage that the project management team is put together and the project initiation plan is prepared.
SU: starting up the project
During the initiation phase, the project team must answer several relevant questions, including
¥ Should we proceed with the project? Is there enough
justification for the project?
¥ How should the project be managed? Who has what responsibilities and duties?
¥ Does the company have enough resources for the project? Can the company afford the project?
¥ What are the risks involved? What happens if the project fails? Can we take the risk?
The initiation phase must answer the question of whether the project should be started in the first place. At this stage a project initiation document is written, which describes the goals and objectives of the project.
IP: initiation of the project
): This involves the project manager controlling the actual work that must be done during the different project stages. Who has to do what work? Who is responsible for the requirements analysis? Who is responsible for manufacturing the product and for testing the product? What work must be done during the different project stages? What should be done if there are unexpected problems?
CS: controlling a stage.
This process focuses on the production of the product. How is the product manufactured? Who is responsible for making the product? Does the product meet the client’s expectations? What is the product’s level of quality?
MP: Managing product delivery
The project manager will close the project when the product is finished or even if the project must be closed prematurely. This is a time for evaluation. How well was the project executed? What are the lessons learned? During this process the finished product is handed over to the client and company management is informed that the project is now finished.
closing the project.
Advantage of PRINCE2
- Consistency
- Controlled and organized
- regular reviews.
- flexibility
- involvement and communication
- learning
requirements for PRINCE2 and disadvantages
Require:
- effort, written documentation of the project processes.
disadvantage:
- not for small projects.
SSADM
systems analysis and design method
3 phase in SSADM
- feasibility study phase
- the systems analysis and design phase
- implementation phase
Feasibility study: The feasibility study addresses four critical areas: technical, financial, ethical and manufacturing. The technical feasibility study investigates from a technical standpoint whether a product can be manufactured in the first place. Financial feasibility investigates the costs of product development; that is, can the company afford to make the product? Ethical feasibility addresses the issue of whether the product is socially acceptable. Maybe the product will result in negative social and environmental consequences? Finally, the manufacturing of the product must be compatible with current practices in the organization. This aspect is investigated in the organizational feasibility study. we can see here that feasibility foes beyond mere financial considerations; it also attempts to take social and organizational matters into account.
stage 0
Feasibility study phase
Investigation of the current environment: The systems analyst tries to learn as much as possible about the existing system by interviewing employees or using questionnaires. One should not forget that the existing system may represent the basis on which to build the new one. By investigating the current environment, it is also possible to identify any inadequacies and needs for improvement.
Systems analysis and design phase
stage 1
After conducting an analysis of the current environment, the analyst brainstorms a list of possible options for constructing a new system. At this time a cost—benefit analysis of each option needs to be carried out and the impact made by the different options on the organization must also be taken into consideration. Together with the users and management, the analyst chooses one of the options.
Systems analysis and design phase
stage 2
Business system options:
The specification is a detailed logical description of the chosen option. At this point, we are not really concerned about how the system will work but more focused on what the system will be able to do. Entity relationship diagrams (ERD) help the analyst to describe the functions and the logical structure of the new system.
Systems analysis and design phase
stage 3
Requirements specification
At this stage the implementation ofthe new system starts. The technical aspects of the new system need to be considered at this point, such as the hardware architectures that can be used, implementation costs and the space requirements of the new system.
Systems analysis and design phase
stage 4
technical system options
At this stage the analysts focus on the user interface, especially the menu structure and the dialogues. The logical functionality of the product is the central issue here
Systems analysis and design phase
stage 5
logical design
This stage looks in detail at how the product is to be designed physically, based on the logical description of stage 5. management, irrespective of the area to which it is being applied.
Implementation phase
stage 6
physical design
PMBOK
project management body of knowledge
_____is a book that summarizes the fundamentals ofproject management. An objective of this book is to enforce a common language within project management so that it becomes easier to share and discuss project management concepts
PMBOK
The Guide addresses five process groups that characterize projects:____ ___ ___ ___ and ___
initiating -planning -executing monitoring controling closing
CMMI
Capability maturity model integration
____) is a collection of best practices that help an organization to improve its performance. The CMMI model does not replace other project management methods. Rather, it can be applied to an existing project and even to whole organizations
CMMI
How should an organization develop its products and services?
CMMI for development
How should products and services be managed and delivered to the customer?
CMMI for services.
How should the organization obtain products and services from other sources? If the organization needs to outsource and obtain external help, how should this be achieved?
CMMI for acquisition
At this elementary stage, the processes of the project are controlled poorly. The outcome of the project is rather unpredictable and the product’s quality can be expected to be low.
Level 1
initial
At this level, projects are managed at a basic level. Projects are planned, monitored and controlled by the management but there is no standardization. The management has a reactive attitude and responds to external disturbances (such as human resource problems, financial problems etc). Yet, there are no organization-wide standardS on how to deal with these issues.
Level 2
Managed
An organization-wide standard exists on how projects are to be conducted. Processes and projects draw upon these standards. Management does not simply react but acts proactively.
Level 3
Defined
The project management team has introduced means with which to measure the progress of the process
Level 4
Quantitatively managed
This level focuses on the continual improvement of processes
Level 5
Optimizing
____of product design has the significant disadvantage in that it can be difficult to make adjustments in response to unexpected changes in the middle of the project.
Linear waterfall model
Iteration: SDLC cyclic diagram
Analysis Design Implementation Testing Maintenance
PERT
Project evaluation and review technique
Identification of milestones and activities: During this step, the project management team must identify all the relevant project stages and the activities necessary to complete these stages.
Step 1 :
Identification of milestones and activities
: Project management must now determine the order in which the different activities and milestones are to occur. In many cases, the very nature of the milestone determines its position. For example, it is clear that the testing of a product can only take place after the product has been developed. It should also be clarified when an activity is not dependent on the outcome of another.
Step 2
Sequencing of milestones and activities
The milestones and activities are now arranged into a network. The milestones are represented by circles and the activities by arrows connecting these circles. Nowadays, computer programs can assist with this step. If done by hand, much rearrangement may be necessary to construct a chart that gives a good overview.
Step 3
Constructing the PERT chart
The time to complete each activity must be estimated. This time is written above or below the corresponding arrow. The project management team can choose between several different times. The optimistic time is the time required if there are no unexpected delays or problems. The pessimistic time represents a scenario in which there are multiple that need to be managed. Alternatively, the management can choose an expected time that is located somewhere
between these extremes.
Step 4
- Estimating activity time:
Once the estimated completion times have been assigned to the different activities, the team can use the PERT chart to calculate the total duration of the project (which nowadays can be done with the help of a software program). In order to do this, it is necessary to add up the times of all the paths from start to finish. For more complex PERT charts, several hundred, if not thousands, of different paths are possible. The critical path is the path with the shortest total time. It is not possible to complete the project before this time.
Step 5 -
Critical path analysis:
It is possible that the activity completion times change during the project. There may be delays or some activities may be completed more quickly than expected. The PERT chart therefore needs to be constantly updated and a new critical path analysis subsequently performed. Thus, the PERT chart does not only serve as a tool for planning the future but also as an actual representation of the project’s history.
Step 6 —
Updating the chart:
