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Anatomy & Physiology > Introductory Chemistry and Cytology > Flashcards

Introductory Chemistry and Cytology Flashcards

1
Q

Why is it important to understand chemistry when learning about the human body?

A

Everything we eat
and drink play vital roles in the body on a molecular level; the body is composed of chemicals and all
body activities are chemical in nature; all living things are composed of chemicals

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2
Q

Chemistry

A

The science of the structure and interactions of matter

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3
Q

Matter

A

anything that occupies space and has mass

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4
Q

Mass

A

the amount of matter in any living organism or nonliving thing

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5
Q

Chemical Elements

A

(112) building blocks that make up all forms of matter; cannot be broken down
into a simpler form by ordinary chemical means

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6
Q

Chemical Symbol

A

one or two letters of an element’s name that designate the element

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7
Q

Elements in the body

A

26 different elements are normally present in the body

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8
Q

Major elements

A

constitute about 96% of the body’s mass; oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen

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9
Q

lesser elements

A

constitute about 3.6% of the body’s mass; calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron

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10
Q

Trace elements

A

constitute about 0.4% of the body’s mass; aluminum, boron, chromium, cobalt,
copper, fluorine, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, tin, vanadium, and zinc

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11
Q

Atom

A

the smallest unit of matter that makes up each element and retains the properties and
characteristics of the element; consists of a nucleus (positively charged) and one or more electrons

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12
Q

Electrons

A

tiny, negatively charged particles that move about in a large space surrounding the
nucleus

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13
Q

the number of electrons in an atom

A

equals the number of protons which results in a neutral or uncharged atom

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14
Q

ion

A

when an atom loses or gains electrons

an atom with a positive or negative charge because the protons and electrons are unequal

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15
Q

Molecules

A

when two or more atoms share electrons, they form a molecule (may
contain one or more different elements)

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16
Q

Compound

A

is a substance containing atoms of two or more different elements

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17
Q

free radical

A

is an ion or molecule that has an unpaired electron in its outermost shell
(unstable and destructive)

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18
Q

Chemical reactions

A

when new bonds form and/or old bonds break between atoms

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19
Q

Synthesis Reactions

A

when two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and larger molecules; in the body, synthesis reactions are collectively referred to as anabolism

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20
Q

Decomposition Reactions

A

when a molecule is split apart; in the body, decomposition reactions
are collectively referred to as catabolism

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21
Q

Metabolism

A

the sum of all the chemical reactions in the body (anabolism + catabolism)

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22
Q

Inorganic Compounds

A

do not contain carbon

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23
Q

Organic Compounds

A

always contain carbon

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24
Q

Water

A

most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems; makes up 55-60% of body mass in lean adults

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25
Q

Excellent Solvent

A

carries nutrients, oxygen, and wastes throughout the body

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26
Q

Solvent

A

liquid or gas in which a solute has been dissolved

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27
Q

Solute

A

a material that is dissolved in a solvent

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28
Q

Solution

A

combination of solvent plus solute

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29
Q

Concentration

A

the amount of solute in a solution

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30
Q

Concentration gradient

A

– a difference in concentration between two different areas; solutes moving from a high-concentration area to a low-concentration area are said to
move down or with the concentration gradient; the opposite is moving up or against the
concentration gradient

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31
Q

Acid

A

substance that breaks apart or dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions when it dissolves in water

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32
Q

Base

A

usually dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions when it dissolves in water

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33
Q

Acid-base balance

A

to ensure homeostasis, body fluids must contain almost balanced quantities of acids
and bases

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34
Q

Acidity

A

is expressed on the pH scale (0-14) based on the number of
hydrogen ions in a solution; more hydrogen ions is acidic (pH below 7); less hydrogen ions is alkaline (pH above 7); the pH of various body fluids differ, but are very specific

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35
Q

Buffers

A

chemical compounds that act quickly to temporarily bind hydrogen ions, removing them from the solution but not from the body

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36
Q

Enzymes

A

speed up chemical reactions by increasing the frequency of collisions and orientation of
colliding molecules; mostly proteins; usually end in “–ase”; important properties of enzymes:

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37
Q

Specificity

A

each particular enzyme catalyzes a particular chemical reaction that involves
specific substrates

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38
Q

Efficiency

A

a single enzyme molecule can convert substrate molecules to product molecules at
rates as high as 600,000 per second

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39
Q

Control

A

the rate of synthesis and concentration of enzymes are controlled by the cells

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40
Q

Nucleic acids

A

– huge organic molecules in the nuclei of cells; composed of repeating building blocks
called nucleotides; 2 kinds of nucleic acids

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41
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid; comprises genes and is composed of a double-stranded double
helix

42
Q

RNA

A

Ribonucleic Acid; copied from DNA but is single-stranded and carries out instructions
from the DNA

43
Q

Adenosine triphosphate ( ATP)

A

-“energy currency” of living organism ; transfers energy from energyreleasing
reactions to energy-requiring reactions that maintain cellular activities; when a phosphate is
released from ATP during a chemical reaction, energy is released and adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
remains; as energy is required, ATP synthase promotes the addition of a phosphate to the ADP, resulting
in more ATP

44
Q

Cell biology/ cytology

A

the study of cellular structure and function; about 200 different types of cells compose
your body; a cell is a living structural and functional unit

45
Q

3 main parts of a cell

A

Plasma membrane
cytoplasm
nucleus

46
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

flexible outer surface of the cell; separates internal from external
environment and regulates the flow of materials into and out of the cell

flexible and sturdy; consists mostly of lipids and proteins

lipid bilayer

47
Q

Cytoplasms

A

all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; contains
cytosol and organelles

48
Q

Cytosol

A

the liquid portion of cytoplasm; mostly water plus dissolved solutes and
suspended particles; intracellular fluid

49
Q

Organelles

A

within the cytosol; different characteristic structures and functions

50
Q

Nucleus

A

the largest organelle of a cell; acts as the control center for a cell; contains the genes

51
Q

Lipid bilayer

A

two back-to-back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules:
phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids

52
Q

Integral proteins

A

extend into or through the lipid bilayer forming ion channels

53
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

loosely attached to the exterior or interior surface of the membrane

54
Q

Selective permeability

A

allows some substances to move into and out of the cell but restricts the
passage of other substances; permeable to water and to lipid-soluble molecules (fatty acids, fat-
soluble vitamins, steroids, oxygen, and carbon dioxide); not permeable to ions and large,
uncharged polar molecules (glucose and amino acids)

55
Q

Ions channels

A

formed by integral proteins that assist small and medium-sized water-soluble
materials to cross the membrane

56
Q

Carriers ( transporters)

A

change shape as they move a substance from one side of the membrane
to the other

57
Q

Receptors

A

recognize and bind a specific molecule that governs some cellular function

58
Q

Enzymes

A

some integral proteins; speed up specific chemical reactions

59
Q

Cell identity makers

A

enable a cell to recognize other cells of its own kind during tissue
formation, or to recognize and respond to potentially dangerous foreign cells

60
Q

Intracellular fluid

A

fluid contained inside body cells; 2/3 of the fluid in your body

61
Q

Extracellular fluid

A

fluid outside body cells; for example: interstitial fluid (in the microscopic spaces
between the cells of tissues), plasma (in blood vessels), lymph (in lymphatic vessels), cerebrospinal fluid
(within and around the brain and spinal cord)

62
Q

Passive Processes

A

a substance moves down into concentration gradient through the membrane using
only its own energy of motion

63
Q

Osmosis

A

a passive process in which there is a net movement of water through a selectively
permeable membrane from higher water concentration to lower water concentration, or from
lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration

64
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

pressure exerted on the membrane by a solution containing solute
particles that cannot pass through the membrane; the higher the solute concentration, the
higher the solution’s osmotic pressure

65
Q

Diffusion

A

a passive process in which a substance moves due to its kinetic energy

66
Q

Active processes

A

cellular energy, usually ATP, is used to push the substance through the membrane uphill against its concentration gradient

67
Q

Active transport

A

an active process in which cellular energy is used to transport substances
across the membrane against a concentration gradient

68
Q

Pump

A

a carrier protein whose shape has been changed by energy derived from ATP;

69
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A

the most important active transport pump; expels sodium ions from cells and brings in potassium ions; acts as an enzyme to split
ATP; all cells have thousands in their membranes; because Na and K leak through
the membrane, the pumps must be going continually against the gradient;
necessary for the ability of some cells to generate electrical signals such as action
potentials

70
Q

Vesicle

A

– a small round sac formed by budding off from an existing membrane; transport
substances from one structure to another within cells, take in substances from extracellular fluid,
and release substances into extracellular fluid; movement of vesicles requires energy supplied by
ATP

71
Q

Cytoplasms

A

consists of all of the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus and
includes both cytosol and organelles

72
Q

Cytosol

A

the liquid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles and accounts for about
55% of the total cell volume

73
Q

Microvilli

A

fingerlike projections of the plasma membrane that increase the surface area of the cell for absorption; may help some cells attach to one another or to extracellular materials

74
Q

Organelles

A

specialized structures inside cells that have characteristic shapes and specific
functions

75
Q

Cilia and flagella

A

motile projections of the cell surface

76
Q

Cilia

A

numerous, short, hair-like projections that extend from the surface of the cell to
move fluid and particles over the surface of the cell

77
Q

Flagella

A

similar to cilia but much longer; usually move an entire cell; sperm cell

78
Q

Ribosomes

A

the sites of protein synthesis; high concentration of RNA; synthesize proteins
destined for specific organelles, for insertion in the plasma membrane, for export from the cell,
proteins used in the cytosol, or mitochondrial proteins depending on the location of the ribosome

79
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

a network of folded membranes in the form of flattened sacs or tubules;
extends throughout the cytoplasm; 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum:

rough
smooth

80
Q

rough ER

A

covered with ribosomes; factory for synthesizing secretory proteins and
membrane molecules

81
Q

Smooth ER

A

lack of ribosomes; where fatty acids and steroids are synthesized; different
roles in different types of cells

82
Q

Mitchondria

A

“powerhouse of the cell”; site of most ATP production; a cell may have as few
as 100 or as many as several thousand mitochondria

83
Q

Nucleus

A

a spherical or oval structure that usually is the most prominent feature of a cell; most cells
have a single nucleus, some have none, some have several

84
Q

Cell division

A

the process whereby cells reproduce themselves; 2 types:
reproductive cell division
somatic cell division

85
Q

Reproductive cell division (meiosis)

A

the process that produces gametes (sperm and oocytes)

86
Q

Somatic cell division

A

all other body cells (besides gamates) are somatic cells and divide into
two identical cells during cell division; DNA is replicated so that the two cells are genetically identical

87
Q

Cellular diversity

A

the body of an average human adult is composed of nearly 100 trillion cells that vary
in size and shape; may be round, oval, flat, cube-shaped, column-shaped, elongated, star-shaped,
cylindrical, or disc-shaped depending on their function in the body

88
Q

Aging

A

a normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body’s homeostatic adaptive
responses; many normal cells divide a certain number of times, then stop

89
Q

Telomeres

A

specific DNA sequences found only at the tips of each chromosome; protect the tips of
chromosomes from erosion and from sticking to one another; each cycle of cell division shortens them
and eventually they are completely gone – contributes greatly to aging and death of cells

90
Q

Atrophy

A

a decrease in the size of cells with subsequent decrease in the size of the affected tissue or organ; wasting away

91
Q

Dysplasia

A

alteration in the size, shape, and organization of cells due to chronic irritation or inflammation

92
Q

Hyperplasia

A

increase in the number of cells of a tissue due to an increase in the frequency of cell
division

93
Q

Hypertrophy

A

increase in the size of cells in a tissue without cell division

94
Q

Metaplasia

A

the transformation of one type of cell into another

95
Q

Necrosis

A

a pathological type of cell death, resulting from tissue injury

96
Q

Local disease

A

one that affects one part or a limited area of the body

97
Q

Systemic disease

A

one that affects the entire body or several parts

98
Q

Epidemiology

A

the science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are
transmitted within a defined human population

99
Q

Geriatrics

A

the science that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly persons

100
Q

Pathology

A

The science that deals with the nature, causes, and development of abnormal conditions and the structural and functional changes that diseases produce

Anatomy & Physiology (15 decks)

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