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A-level Chemistry > Introduction to Organic Chemistry and Alkanes > Flashcards

Introduction to Organic Chemistry and Alkanes Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the empirical formula?

A

The simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound or molecule

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2
Q

What is the molecular formula?

A

The actual number of atoms in a molecule or element

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3
Q

What is the general formula?

A

i.e alkanes = CnH2n+2
alkenes= CnH2n
alcohols= CnH2n + 1 OH

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4
Q

What is the structural formula?

A

The arrangement of atoms in a molecule without showing all the bonds (CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH)

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5
Q

What does the skeletal formula show?

A

The bonds of the carbon skeleton only. Hydrogen and carbon atoms aren’t shown, but functional groups are.

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6
Q

What does the displayed formula show?

A

The arrangement of atoms and shows all the bonds and atoms in a molecule

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7
Q

What is a homologous series?

A

A group of compounds that has the same functional group and the same general formula.

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8
Q

What is a functional group?

A

an atom or group of atoms within a molecule that has similar chemical properties

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9
Q

What are structural isomers?

A

Molecules that have the same molecular formula, but a different arrangement of atoms in space.

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10
Q

What are the 3 types of structural isomer?

A

Chain, positional, functional group

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11
Q

What is a chain isomer?

A

A molecule that has the same molecular formula, but a different arrangement of carbon atoms i.e is branched.

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12
Q

What is a positional isomer?

A

A molecule that has the same molecular formula, but a different position of the functional group

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13
Q

What is a functional group isomer?

A

A molecule that has the same molecular formula, but a different functional group

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14
Q

What is the functional group isomer of an aldehyde?

A

A ketone

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15
Q

What is the functional group isomer of a ketone?

A

An aldehyde

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16
Q

Where is the carbonyl group located in an aldehyde?

A

At the end of the molecule

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17
Q

Where is the carbonyl group located in a ketone?

A

In the middle of the molecule

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18
Q

What is the functional group isomer of an alcohol?

A

An ether

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19
Q

What is the functional group isomer of a carboxylic acid?

A

An ester

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20
Q

Give 3 examples of an ester?

A

Ethyl ethanoate , methyl propanoate, propyl methanoate

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21
Q

Give an example of an ether

A

1-ethoxy ethane

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22
Q

Stereoisomerism

A

chem vid

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23
Q

What is the general formula of an alkene?

A

CnH2n

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24
Q

Are alkanes and cycloalkanes saturated hydrocarbons?

A

Yes

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25
Q

What 3 ways are alkane fuels formed?

A

Through the fractional distillation, cracking and reforming of crude oil

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26
Q

What is the functional group isomer of an alkene?

A

A cycloalkane

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27
Q

What is reforming?

A

the processing of straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched-chain alkanes and cyclic hydrocarbons for efficient combustion.

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28
Q

Describe the process of fractional distillation?

A

1) The crude oil is vaporised in a blast furnace at about 350 degrees celcius.

2) The vaporised crude oil enters the fractioning column and rises. The longer chained hydrocarbons don’t vaporise and just run to the bottom.

3) The fractioning column has a temperature gradient, it’s cooler at the top and hotter at the bottom. As each hydrocarbon has a different boiling point, they will each cool and condense at different temperatures.

4) The hydrocarbons with the lowest boiling points don’t condense. They’re drawn off as gases at the top of the column.

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29
Q

What is an addition reaction?

A

Where 2 or more molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule

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30
Q

What is a polymerisation reaction?

A

Where lots of simple molecules are joined together to form a giant molecule

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31
Q

What is an elimination reaction?

A

Where a small group of atoms breaks away from a larger molecule

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32
Q

What is a substitution reaction?

A

Where one species is replaced by another species

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33
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction?

A

Where a molecule is split into 2 new molecules by adding water

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34
Q

What is an oxidation reaction?

A

Where a species loses electrons in a reaction

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35
Q

What is a reduction reaction?

A

Where a species gains electrons in a reaction

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36
Q

Nucleophiles ……

A

contain a lone pair of electrons and are attracted to areas of positive charge

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37
Q

Electrophiles….

A

are electron deficient and so are attracted to areas of high electron density

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38
Q

Radicals….

A

have an unpaired electron ad are very reactive and so basically react with anything

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39
Q

What is gas used for?

A

Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) and camping gas

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40
Q

What is petrol used for?

A
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41
Q

What is Naptha used for?

A
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42
Q

What is Kerosene(parrafin) used for?

A
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43
Q

What is gas oil (diesel) used for?

A
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44
Q

What is mineral oil (Lubricating) used for?

A
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45
Q

What’s in greater demand- heavier fractions or lighter fractions?

A

Lighter fractios

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46
Q

What is cracking?

A

Breaking long chained hydrocarbons (alkanes) into shorter chained hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkanes) . It involves breaking a C-C bond

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47
Q

What are the 2 type of cracking?

A

Thermal cracking and catalytic cracking

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48
Q

What temperature and pressure does thermal cracking take place at?

A
  • At high temperatures of up to 1000 degrees Celsius
  • At a high pressure of up to 70 atm
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49
Q

What are the main products of thermal cracking?

A

Alkenes and hydrogen (which can be used in the haber process)

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50
Q

What can the alkenes produced by thermal cracking be used to make?

A

Polymers (plastics)

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51
Q

What conditions are needed for catalytic cracking?

A
  • a zeolite catalyst
  • a slight pressure
  • a high temperature of around 450 degrees celcius
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52
Q

What compounds does catalytic cracking mostly produce?

A

Aromatic hydrocarbons, cyclic alkanes, branched alkanes, motor fuels

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53
Q

What are aromatic hydrocarbons?

A

compounds containing benzene rings. benzene rings contain a ring of 6 carbon atoms with a delocalised ring of electrons

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54
Q

How can you convert straight chained hydrocarbons into branched alkanes and cyclic hydrocarbons?

A

By reforming via the use of a catalyst. Hydrogen is produced as the by product of the reactions

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55
Q

What conditions are needed for reforming?

A

high pressure and high temperature in the presence of a platinum catalyst

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56
Q

Why does reforming hydrocarbons allow for more efficient combustion?

A

-Because reformed hydrocarbons have lower boiling points and so combust easier and quicker

-Reforming hydrocarbons also reduces the knocking effect, which is where alkanes explode when the fuel or air mixture in the engine is compressed.

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57
Q

Which pollutants are formed during the combustion of alkane fuels?

A
  • Carbon Monoxide
  • Oxides of Nitrogen
  • Oxides of Sulfur
  • Carbon particulates
  • Unburned hydrocarbons
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58
Q

What happens when you burn alkanes with oxygen?

A

you get carbon dioxide and water

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59
Q

What is the possible combination of products when incomplete combustion occurs?

A
  • Carbon monoxide, water, carbon, carbon dioxide
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60
Q

Why is carbon monoxide toxic?

A

Because the carbon monoxide binds to the haemoglobin in our blood and makes it difficult for oxygen to be transported around the body

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61
Q

How can carbon monoxide be removed?

A

By using a catalytic converter

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62
Q

Why are oxides of nitrogen formed?

A

Due to the high temperatures and pressures in the car engine

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63
Q

What happens when nitrogen oxides react with water?

A

nitric acid can be produced, which can then fall as acid rain

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64
Q

How is sulfur dioxide produced?

A

By burning fuels with sulfur impurities

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65
Q

What happens when sulfur dioxide is produced?

A

It reacts with water to form sulfuric acid and this then falls as acid rain

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66
Q

What problems does acid rain cause?

A
  • Destroys plants
  • Corrodes buildings and statues
  • Kills fish and aquatic life living in bodies of water
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67
Q

How are particulates formed?

A

From the incomplete combustion of fuels

68
Q

What problems do particulates cause?

A
  • they can damage the lungs and cause respiratory problems
  • They can cover buildings and statues, making them look unclean and accelerating corrosion
  • They can reflect sunlight back into space reducing the amount of light reaching the earth, this is called global dimming
69
Q

What do Catalytic converters do?

A

They use a platinum catalyst to convert pollutants into harmless gases, hence limiting the amount of pollutants that enter the atmosphere

70
Q

What are the main fossil fuels?

A

Coal, oil, and natural gas

71
Q

Is there a finite or infinite amount of fossil fuels?

A

There’s a finite amount of fossil fuels

72
Q

Which fossil fuel will be the first to run out?

A

Oil

73
Q

Are fossil fuels renewable or non-renewable?

A

They’re non-renewable

74
Q
A
75
Q

What are some alternatives to fossil fuels?

A

Biofuels and alcohol

76
Q

What are the 3 main biofuels?

A

Bioethanol. biodiesel, biogas

77
Q

What is bioethanol?

A

A biofuel made from the fermentation of sugar from crops such as maize

78
Q

What is biodisel?

A

a biofuel made by refining renewable fats and oils, such as vegetable oil

79
Q

What is biogas?

A

a biofuel produced by the breakdown of organic waste matter

80
Q

Why are biofuels describes as being carbon neutral?

A
  • This is because as the plants grow they absorb carbon dioxide which is equivalent to the amount of carbon dioxide that will be released when they are burnt.
  • However, this is not completely true, as carbon dioxide will also be produced in the refining and transport of the plants
81
Q

Can biodiesel and biogas also be made from waste that would otherwise go to landfill?

A

Yes

82
Q

What is one problem with free radical substitution?

A

You often get a mixture of products, not just the desired product

82
Q

What’s the problem with trying to use biofuels in car engines?

A

car engines would have to be modified and this could cost a lot of money

83
Q

In alkane what does the first example of structural isomerism begin at?

A

Butane (C4H10)

83
Q

Why do branched molecules have a lower boiling point than straight chains?

A

Because branched molecules are more compact and so have less London forces. This means a lesser amount if energy is required for them to boil

84
Q

Are alkanes very reactive?

A

No, they’re fairly unreactive

85
Q

What’s a trick for balancing complete combustion Equations?

A
  • In complete combustion, every carbon in the original hydrocarbon gives a carbon dioxide.
  • Every 2 hydrogens give a water molecules.
  • Then all you need to do is balance the oxygen
86
Q

What can SO2 be reacted with to limit its polluting effects?

A

So2 can be reacted with effluent gases with a suitable base compound e.g CaO

87
Q

What is Carbon monoxide converted into in catalytic convertors?

A

To carbon dioxide

88
Q

What is NOx converted into in catalytic convertors?

A

N2

89
Q

What are unburnt hydrocarbons converted to in catalytic convertors?

A

C02 and H20

90
Q

Which metals are usually used in catalytic convertors?

A

Platinum, palladium, and rhodium

91
Q

Why is the catalyst in catalytic convertors used in a finely divided form?

A

To increase the surface area that the reaction can take place over. This increases the rate of reaction

92
Q

Are alkanes aliphatic?

A

Yes

93
Q

The greater the branching….

A

The lower the boiling point

94
Q

Why can’t leaded petrol pass through the catalyst?

A

Because the lead deposit on the catalysts surface and “poisons” it. Hence blocking sites for the reaction to take place

95
Q

What does heterolytic fission produce?

A

Ions (one gets both of the 2 electrons from the bond)

96
Q

What does homylitic fission produce?

A

Radicals (each getting an electron each)

97
Q

Can free radicals be formed during thermal cracking ?

A

Yes

98
Q

Give the overall reaction, the initiation steps, the propagation steps, and the termination steps for the reaction of CH4 with CL2

A
99
Q

Show the mechanism and overall equation of CH3CL reacting with Cl2

A
100
Q

Show the mechanism and overall equation of CH2CL2 reacting with Cl2

A
101
Q

Show the mechanism and overall equation of CHCL3 reacting with Cl2

A
102
Q

Alkene + Halogen ->

A

Dihalogenoalkane

103
Q

Alkene + Hydrogen ->

A

Alkane

104
Q

Alkene + Hydrogen Halide ->

A

Halogenoalkane

105
Q

Alkene + Potassium Mangate ->

A

Diol

106
Q

Alkene + Steam ->

A

Alcohol

107
Q

Why is a tertiary carbocation more likely to form?

A

Because it is more stable than both a primary and secondary carbocation

108
Q

How many R groups is a primary carbocation bonded to ?

A

1

109
Q

How many R groups is a secondary carbocation bonded to?

A

2

110
Q

How many R groups is a tertiary carbocation bonded to?

A

3

111
Q

Do symmetrical or unsymmetrical alkenes form carbocations?

A

Unsymmetrical

112
Q

What is Markownikoff’s rule?

A

The major product from the addition of a hydrogen halide to an unsymmetrical alkene is the one where hydrogen adds to the carbon with the most hydrognes already attached

113
Q

Thre can be a major product and a what product?

A

A minor product

114
Q

What happens when you add an alkene to acidified potassium manganate (VII)?

A

The purple solution decolourises as the alkene has been oxidised and a diol has been produced.

115
Q

What is an electrophile?

A

something attracted to areas of high electron density

116
Q

What is an nucleophile?

A

something attracted to areas of positive charge

117
Q

What conditions are needed for the hydrogenation of an alkene?

A

A nickel catalyst and a temperature of 150 degrees celcius

118
Q

What conditions are needed for the reaction of an alkene with steam to form an alcohol?

A

a temperature of 300 degrees celsius; a pressure of 60-70 atm, and a solid phosphoric(V) acid catalyst

119
Q

What is H3P04?

A

Phosphoric acid

120
Q

What is KMn04?

A

Potassium Manganate

121
Q

Why are all the reactions with alkenes examples of electrophilic addition reactions?

A

Because alkenes have double bonds with high electron densities that attract positively charged molecules

122
Q

What type of reactions usually take place with halogenoalkanes?

A

Nucleophilic substitution reactions

123
Q

Halogenoalkane + Aqueous Potassium Hydroxide ->

A

Alcohol

124
Q

What conditions are needed for the reaction between a halogenoalkane and aqueous potassium hydroxide to form an alcohol?

A

The potassium hydroxide has to be warm and the reaction usually takes place under reflux

125
Q

What happens when you react a halogeonalkane with aqueous silver nitrate in ethanol?

A

You get an alcohol, a hydrogen ion, and a halide ion

126
Q

What can the halide ion formed from the reaction between a halogenoalkane and aqueous silver nitrate consequently react with?

A

The silver ions in silver nitrate to form silver precipitates. Thr colour of the precipitate allows you to identify the halide ion present.

127
Q

Cl- + Ag+ ->

A

AgCl

128
Q

Br- + Ag+ ->

A

AgBr

129
Q

I- + Ag+ ->

A

AgI

130
Q

What colour precipitate is AgCl?

A

White precipitate

131
Q

What colour precipitate is AgBr?

A

Cream precipitate

132
Q

What colour precipitate is AgI?

A

A yellow precipitate

133
Q

Halogenoalkane + Potassium Cynaide(in ethanol) ->

A

Nitrile

134
Q

What condition is needed for the reaction between a halogenoalkane and potassium cyanide to form a nitrile ?

A

Reflux

135
Q

What is reflux?

A

Heating with a condenser placed vertically in the flask to prevent the loss of volatile substances from the mixture

136
Q

What’s the benefit of the reaction between a halogeinalkane and potassium cyanide to form a nitrile?

A

This reaction helps lengthen the carbon chain

137
Q

Halogenoalkane + Ammonia(in ethanol) ->

A

Amine

138
Q

Halogenoalkane + Ethanolic Potassium Hydroxide ->

A

Alkene

139
Q

What conditions are needed for the reaction of a halogenoalkane and ethanolic potassium hydroxide to form an alkene?

A
  • The alkali potassium hydroxide must be warmed
  • The mixture must be heated under reflux
  • The Potassium Hydroxide must be dissolved in ethanol
140
Q

What sort of reaction is the reaction between a halogenoalkane and ethanol potassium hydroxide to form an alkene ?

A

Elimination

141
Q

Alcohol + Concentrated Phosphoric acid ->

A

Alkene

142
Q

What type of reaction is the reaction between alcohol and concentrated phosphoric acid to form an alkene ?

A

An elimination reaction

143
Q

What reaction conditions are needed for the reaction between an alcohol and concentrated phosphoric acid to form an alkene?

A
  • Alcohol must be heated under reflux
  • Phosphoric acid catalyst
  • Alkene can be purified by distillation
144
Q

What type of reaction is a dehydration reaction ?

A

An elimination reaction

145
Q

What do alcohols combust with oxygen to give ?

A

Carbon dioxide and water

146
Q

C2H5OH + 3O2 ->

A

2CO2 + 3H20

147
Q

What is PCL5?

A

Phosphorous Pentachloride

148
Q

Alcohol + PCL5 ->

A

Chloroalkane

149
Q

Alcohol + HCl ->

A

Chloroalkane

150
Q

Ethanol + Phosphorous Chloride ->

A

Chloroethane + Phosphoryl trichloride + Hydrogen Chloride

151
Q

ROH + PCl5 ->

A

RCl + POCl3 + HCl

152
Q

Alcohol + Potassium Bromide + Sulfurinc acid ->

A

Bromoethane + water + Potassium Hydrogen Sulfate

153
Q

C2H5OH + KBr + H2SO4 ->

A

C2H5Br + H2O + KHSO4

154
Q

What conditions are needed for the reaction of Alcohol and Potassium Bromide and Sulfuric acid ?

A
  • Reflux
  • 50% concentrated sulfuric acid
155
Q

Alcohol + Red Phosphorous + Iodine ->

A

Iodoalkane

156
Q

Oxidation of Primary alcohols….

A

Primary alcohols are oxidised by potassium dichromate(VI) in dilute sulfuric acid to form aldehyde and carboxylic acids

157
Q

Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols…

A

Secondary alcohols are oxidised by Potassium Dichromate(VI) in dilute sulfuric acid to form ketones

158
Q

Oxidation of tertiary alcohols….

A

Tertiary alcohols aren’t oxidised

159
Q

Cr2O72-/H+ come from K2Cr2O7/ H2SO4

A
160
Q

How can you get only the aldehyde product from the oxidation of primary alcohols?

A

Via fractional distillation

161
Q

How can you test for aldehydes/ketones using Benedicts solution ?

A
  • If benedicts is heated with an aldehyde, a red precipitate will form.
  • If Benedicts is heated with a ketone, no precipitate will form
162
Q

How can you test for an aldehyde/ketone using Fehlings solution?

A
  • Red precipitate will form in the presence of an aldehyde.
  • No precipitate will form in the presence of a ketone
163
Q

What colour change is observed when an alcohol is oxidised with Potassium Dichromate(VI)?

A

A colour change from orange to green

A-level Chemistry (19 decks)

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