Honey hygiene Flashcards
Describe bees
Hymenoptera
Some groups eusocial
colonies comprise of:
- queen (lays eggs)
- drones (males, mate with queen)
- workers (female, do everything else)
Describe the production of eggs and hatching of adults
Each egg laid in a hexagonal wax cell and hatch into larvae.
Not all eggs are treated equally!
Workers ‘cap’ cells when larvae ready to pupate.
Adult emerges at different times depending on caste
What kind of cell is this
queen cell
What kind of cell is this
worker cell
What kind of cell is this
drone cell
Describe honey bee feeding
Nectar is the main energy source — mostly sucrose
Bees use invertase to break down sucrose → glucose + fructose
Processed nectar is regurgitated into storage cells (becomes honey)
Pollen is collected in leg baskets and used as a protein source
Define pollination
the transfer of pollen (male gametes) between male and female parts of flowers to enable plants to reproduce
What is the most popular bee species
Apis mellifera (western honeybee)
Where are bees kept
apiaries
What is the composition of honey
What are the general pharmacological properties of honey
Low water activity (aᵥ) inhibits microbial growth in all honeys
Some honeys (not Manuka) produce hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)
Contains hundreds of bioactive compounds with overlapping antimicrobial effects
Low risk of resistance development due to multiple mechanisms of action
What are the specific active components of honey and their action
Methylglyoxal (MGO)
- Glycates DNA and proteins → disrupts metabolism
- Possible cell membrane damage
- May affect expression of fimbriae and flagella
Bee defensin-1
- Increases cell membrane permeability (may form pores)
Polyphenolic compounds
- Broad antimicrobial activity:
* Inhibit DNA gyrase & DNA helicase
* Disrupt peptidoglycan synthesis
* Cause membrane damage and DNA cleavage
What are possible residues found in honey
Antibiotics:
- Chloramphenicol
- Streptomycin
- Tetracyclines
- Sulphonamides
Pesticides:
- Organophosphates
- Organochlorines
Heavy Metals:
- Cadmium
- Lead
Note:
The Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD) is the competent authority for testing in the UK
What is the correlation between honey and botulism and what is the relevance
Honey can contain viable spores of Clostridium botulinum.
These spores can cause infant botulism if ingested.
Infants have immature gut microflora, which cannot inhibit spore germination and toxin production.
Do not feed honey to infants under 12 months old to prevent botulism
What is the aim of the national bee unit (NBU)
“To achieve a sustainable and healthy population of honey bees for pollination and honey production in England and Wales via strengthened partnership working between Government and other stakeholders.”
What are the legislations relevant to bee keeping
Bees Act 1980
- Authorises Bee Inspectors
- Powers: entry, inspection, colony/equipment destruction
- Controls movement, import/export
- Fines for obstruction or breach
Bee Diseases and Pests Control Orders
- 2006 (E&W): Control of notifiable bee diseases and pests
- 2021 (amendment): Varroa must be reported to the NBU
Honey Regulations 2015
- Set honey composition & labelling standards
- Allow enforcement via improvement notices
What are the notifiable diseases/pests of bees
What is a reportable disease/pest of bees
Varroa destructor
Describe European Foulbrood
Notifiable disease, present in the UK
Caused by Melissococcus plutonius (G+ve bacterium)
Often with secondary Enterococcus and Bacillus alvei (malodorous)
Affects brood before capping (esp. 2–3 day-old larvae)
Infects mid-gut, causing starvation
Larvae appear twisted, melted, unsegmented
Spread via nurse bees
Long latency (“disappearing disease”)
Control: Shook swarm or colony destruction if severe
Bacteria remain viable 3–4 years
Describe American Foulbrood
Notifiable, present in the UK
Caused by Paenibacillus larvae (G+ve, spore-forming bacillus)
Brood die after capping → sunken, greasy cappings
Invasive, systemic disease
Spores viable for 40+ years
Risk from imported honey
‘Ropiness test’ for diagnosis
Quarantine hive, tools, PPE, and clean any devices (e.g. phones)
Destruction of hive required under Bee Inspector supervision
Describe Tropilaelaps mite
Notifiable
Not present in UK
Parasitic mites
Affect brood and adults
Parasitisation can cause abnormal brood development, death of both brood and bees.
Their exact geographical range is unknown (native to Asia)
Describe small hive beetle
Notifiable pest; not present in the UK
Native to Africa, now in southern Europe
Larvae consume wax, honey, brood, pollen, and eggs
Ferments honey, causing contamination
Controlled by good husbandry
Eradication unlikely if established in the UK
Describe varroa mite
Reportable ectoparasite
Feeds on abdominal fat bodies of bees
Suppresses immunity
Vector for viruses (e.g. deformed wing virus)
Strong colonies hit hardest
Shortens bee lifespan → impacts overwintering
Disrupts nurse bee cycle (feedback loop)
Describe varroa mite treatment
Timing of treatment crucial
- Aug/Sep
- Again Jan/Feb
Chemical treatments (all AVM-GSL):
- Thymol
- Oxalic/formic acid
- Tau Fluvalinate
- Amitraz
Physical treatments:
- Dust with icing sugar
- Trap combs
