HOM Chapter 2 & 3 Flashcards
Why was the invention of printing so important?
The inventing of the printing press in 1455 led to an explosion in publication and distribution of these classic works in addition to other inexpensive medical books.
Explain how dissection was carried out in the late Middle Ages?
By the late Middle Ages medical schools were again carrying out dissections on bodies (although it was rare).
The professor would sit in his throne/chair high above the body reading from his anatomy book and a junior colleague would point to the parts in the body and a third person did the actual dissections.
Who wrote the first modern book on anatomy? What was interesting about his teaching methods?
Mondino de’ Luzzi
by carrying out the explanation and dissection himself
Who was Leonardo Da Vinci? Why was he important for anatomy? What was the tragedy of all his hard work?
The renaissance man
He dissected at night and reproduced exactly what he saw, made over 750 anatomical drawings.
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He was the first to, illustrate that the uterus was a single cavity. describe a fetus in the correct orientation, show the curvature of the spine, and he understood how the heart and blood worked
His work was hidden for over 300 years
What was Andreas Vesalius’ (Va-zal-lius) contribution to anatomy?
Founder of modern human anatomy
author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, “On the Fabric of the Human Body”
Was first to show how nerves penetrated muscles, nutrition of bones, and the sex organs.
Vesalius, carried out dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself while his students clustered around the table.
What was Gabriel Fallopio’s
contribution to anatomy?
described the internal workings of the ear, anatomy of bones, and muscles.
The internal tubes from ovaries to uterus are named after him
What was Bartolommeo Eustachio’s contribution to anatomy?
Studied kidneys and the head, described the anatomy of teeth and ‘Eustachian tubes’ from the throat to the middle ear.
What was Paracelsus’ style of medicine?
To go back to the basics, he looked back to the Greeks, Hippocrates and Celsus.
What did Paracelsus link in 1528?
Occupation with certain diseases
by working in a mining community noticed the miners all had a likelihood of developing certain diseases
Above all what did Paracelsus believe is the best way to treat patients?
The patient had to be treated as a whole
What are some incorrect things Paracelsus thought?
The universe is based on supernatural creatures
Toothache could be transferred to a tree
Wounds could be cured by rubbing ointment on the weapon that caused the wound
What was William Harvey’s famous sentence?
“The movement of the blood occurs constantly in a circular manner and is the result of the beating of the heart”
Why was William Harvey so influential?
His famous sentence overthrew Galen’s belief in that blood was manufactured and eliminated daily in large quantities.
What did Robert Boyle do?
rejected Aristotle’s four elements and proposed an experimental theory of the elements, thus transforming alchemy into scientific chemistry
How did Giovanni Battista Morgagni disprove the theory of the four humours?
He published a book which showed the difference between diseased organs and normal ones
Where did the blood from early blood transfusions come from? Were they successful?
Animals
There were initially successful however many deaths occurred from incompatible matches.
Who invented the compound microscope?
Created by Dutch spectacle makers Hans and Zacharias Jansen
What did Robert Hooke use the microscope to see?
Robert Hooke used the microscope to first describe cells
What did Anton von Leewenhoek discover under the microscope?
popularized the medical use of the microscope describing sperm cells, red blood cells, muscles, as well as bacteria and protozoa
What did Gabriel David Fahrenheit invent?
Invented the alcohol thermometer
and the mercury thermometer and the temperature scale
What was the first method for controlling smallpox? Explain
Variolation – inserting pus from a smallpox pustule into a scratch on someone unaffected
didn’t always work
What was interesting about cowpox?
Milk Maids would get cowpox but then they would never catch smallpox
What did Benjamin Jesty do?
he took pus from a cowpox pustule and inoculated his wife and children
How did Jenner test to see if cowpox helped make immunity to smallpox?
vaccinating an 8 year old boy with cowpox, then Six weeks later he infected the boy with smallpox, the boy became immune
he did 23 more testings then published his findings
Explain how the living vaccine worked?
To vaccinate the colonies:
He sent 22 children who had never suffered from smallpox and two who were recently vaccinated.
Every ten days of travel 2 children would be vaccinated by the previous two children
What is the difference between anesthesia and analgesia?
Local Anesthesia- numbing particular parts of the body
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General Anesthesia- a state of temporary induced loss of sensation or awareness
Analgesia– the blunting of the conscious perception of pain, reduces the pain but doesn’t remove it completely
Why was a patient preparing for an operation compared with a condemned criminal preparing for execution?
Without pain killer surgery was torturous
How was painless childbirth possible?
using chloroform
Why was cocaine a useful drug for surgery?
when injected, it can numb extensive areas
What was the tree the aspirin comes from?
White Willow Tree
How was aspirin discovered?
Suffering from fever and chewed on a twig of the white willow tree - he knew some plants had medicinal properties. Tasted extremely bitter but relieved his pain. Referred this to 50 others and it never failed to cure them
What was the chemical name for aspirin?
acetyl salicylic acid
Besides pain relief, how else does aspirin affect the body?
reduced fevers and inflammation
What were some of the uses for opium?
Medication, cholera, dysentery, toothache, flatulence, insanity and menopause
When did opium start being imported to America in large amounts?
1898-1902
What two drugs were isolated from opium in 1803?
Morphine & Codeine
What is a sphygmomanometer used for?
To measure blood pressure from outside the body.
What is a spirometer used for?
gauged the lungs vital capacity
Where do the numbers on Fahrenheit’s thermometer come from?
0F- A mixture of ice and sea salt,
32F-the freezing point of water
96F normal body temperature
In the 19th Century many mothers died a few weeks after childbirth. What was it called and what were their symptoms?
Childbed
High temperature, pain in lower abdomen, swelling of the pelvic tissue, abscesses, peritonitis, septicemia, delirium and heart failure
What did Ignaz Semmelweis say the differences between ward 1 and 2 were?
The medical student ward had a mortality rate of 29% and the midwife ward only had 3%
The doctors in charge of the hospital had their own thoughts on what caused the deaths. Explain those thoughts. Why did Ignaz Semmelweis disagree with this?
Doctors thought: Childbed fever was caused by a ‘miasma’ – infectious vapor – present in the atmosphere.
Semmelweis thought: “If miasma was present in the atmosphere both wards would have equal amounts of infection.”
How did Ignaz Semmelweis draw a connection between the dissections and the deaths?
His friend cut himself during a dissection then died of blood poisoning. He had similar symptoms as the mothers infected with childbed.
He found that midwives washed their hands in chlorinated water before treating patients
Medical students would go straight from doing autopsies in the morgue to the maternity ward without washing their hands
Why did Semmelweis feel guilty at his discovery?
He had inadvertently killed many women when he delivered babies without properly cleaning himself.
- What was the result of making the students wash their hands before delivering babies?
The death rate dropped to just over 3 percent in the first year and then down to 1.27% the following year.
What was the reaction by Semmelweis’s fellow colleagues? Praise?
His suggestions were ignored, he was eventually fired.
What was interesting/ironic about his death?
He cut himself during his last operation and died by the same disease he fought to protect mothers from
Before Leeuwenhoek explained bacteria and protozoa how had people thought disease traveled?
“minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes”
Vast majority of doctors and scientists believed diseases were caused and spread by certain concentrations of climate, environment and poor hygiene or ill defined ‘miasma’ in the air
What was the theory of spontaneous generation?
that new life could form in decaying matter
What did Pasteur find causes beer to ferment and milk to sour?
micro-organisms
Explain Pasteur method of eliminating microbes from milk.
Pasteurization – the heating of milk to a certain temperature for a certain amount of time
What did Robert Koch do?
First person to grow bacteria on a solid media
Used gelatin first
Switched to agar jelly with added nutrients
This produced pure cultures
What are the ‘Henle-Koch postulates’?
- A specific organism must be identified in all cases of an infectious disease
2.Pure cultures of the organism must be obtained.
- Organisms derived from pure cultures must reproduce the disease in experimental animals
- The organisms must be recovered from the experimental animals.
How was Cholera transmitted?
Mainly by drinking water.
- What are the symptoms of Cholera?
Diarrhea
Loss of water weight
Not being able to keep down water
How did Cholera spread?
Bed linen, contaminated drinking water from feces, and other places you could find dried up bits of contaminate.
What are early symptoms of Rabies?
Headache and Vomiting.
What are later symptoms of Rabies?
High fever and powerful spasms of the jaw, throat, and breathing muscles.
Hydrophobia (fear of water) may appear – not all victims develop this.
Swallowing becomes impossible
Coma
Death due to heart failure
How does Rabies move from victim to victim?
Saliva of infected animals
Lick an open cut
A bite will infect
How long does it take humans to develop Rabies?
20-90 Days
What could speed up a human developing rabies?
A bite close to the head
What was Bardsley’s suggestion to limit Rabies in Britain?
he suggested quarantining dogs being imported to the country for that time to determine if they had rabies
Why couldn’t Pasteur see rabies under a microscope?
It’s a virus which is too small to be seen by compound microscopes
How did Pasteur create the vaccine for Rabies? at least a paragraph
He injected rabies riddled material (usually nerve tissue) into the brains of uninfected rabbits, after doing this a few times he saw that the rabbits always died of Rabies
When dogs were infected this way they didn’t always become infected so they called this weaker virus the fixed virus.
He then would take the spinal cord of rabbits that died of rabies and suspend them of potassium hydroxide which dried and killed most of the virus. He injected this material into dogs as the vaccine.
He then took a control group of dogs and a group of dogs he vaccinated.
All the vaccinated dogs were fine. Most of control became infected.
What inspired Pasteur to test the vaccine on humans?
A boy who had just been bitten by a dog they thought had rabies.
They figured the boy would die if he wasn’t vaccinated.
Why is Rabies not found in England but still can be found in the US?
England is an island so they started testing animals before importing them.
The US has more wild animals that can carry the disease like squirrels and skunks which still can infect American dogs.
How were so many wounds infected during surgery?
The doctors thought that they should wait to clean their instruments until they finished the operation.
What did Joseph Lister use as his antiseptic agent and why?
Carbolic acid
He heard it had remarkable abilities to disinfect sewage
What was the first successful use of the antiseptic? What were negative effects?
A boy was run over by a cart and broke his leg. Lister used linseed oil and the carbolic acid to wash the wound first. He covered the wound with tin foil to prevent evaporation of the antiseptic.
The down side was the acid had burned the boy’s skin in some areas.
What was Cholera?
infection of the small intestine caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholera
What was Dysentary?
an inflammatory disorder of the intestine
