HOM Chapter 2 & 3

Question 1

Why was the invention of printing so important?

Answer 1

The inventing of the printing press in 1455 led to an explosion in publication and distribution of these classic works in addition to other inexpensive medical books.

Question 2

Explain how dissection was carried out in the late Middle Ages?

Answer 2

By the late Middle Ages medical schools were again carrying out dissections on bodies (although it was rare).

The professor would sit in his throne/chair high above the body reading from his anatomy book and a junior colleague would point to the parts in the body and a third person did the actual dissections.

Question 3

Who wrote the first modern book on anatomy? What was interesting about his teaching methods?

Answer 3

Mondino de’ Luzzi

by carrying out the explanation and dissection himself

Question 4

Who was Leonardo Da Vinci? Why was he important for anatomy? What was the tragedy of all his hard work?

Answer 4

The renaissance man

He dissected at night and reproduced exactly what he saw, made over 750 anatomical drawings.
&
He was the first to, illustrate that the uterus was a single cavity. describe a fetus in the correct orientation, show the curvature of the spine, and he understood how the heart and blood worked

His work was hidden for over 300 years

Question 5

What was Andreas Vesalius’ (Va-zal-lius) contribution to anatomy?

Answer 5

Founder of modern human anatomy

author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, “On the Fabric of the Human Body”

Was first to show how nerves penetrated muscles, nutrition of bones, and the sex organs.

Vesalius, carried out dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself while his students clustered around the table.

Question 6

What was Gabriel Fallopio’s
contribution to anatomy?

Answer 6

described the internal workings of the ear, anatomy of bones, and muscles.

The internal tubes from ovaries to uterus are named after him

Question 7

What was Bartolommeo Eustachio’s contribution to anatomy?

Answer 7

Studied kidneys and the head, described the anatomy of teeth and ‘Eustachian tubes’ from the throat to the middle ear.

Question 8

What was Paracelsus’ style of medicine?

Answer 8

To go back to the basics, he looked back to the Greeks, Hippocrates and Celsus.

Question 9

What did Paracelsus link in 1528?

Answer 9

Occupation with certain diseases

by working in a mining community noticed the miners all had a likelihood of developing certain diseases

Question 10

Above all what did Paracelsus believe is the best way to treat patients?

Answer 10

The patient had to be treated as a whole

Question 11

What are some incorrect things Paracelsus thought?

Answer 11

The universe is based on supernatural creatures

Toothache could be transferred to a tree

Wounds could be cured by rubbing ointment on the weapon that caused the wound

Question 12

What was William Harvey’s famous sentence?

Answer 12

“The movement of the blood occurs constantly in a circular manner and is the result of the beating of the heart”

Question 13

Why was William Harvey so influential?

Answer 13

His famous sentence overthrew Galen’s belief in that blood was manufactured and eliminated daily in large quantities.

Question 14

What did Robert Boyle do?

Answer 14

rejected Aristotle’s four elements and proposed an experimental theory of the elements, thus transforming alchemy into scientific chemistry

Question 15

How did Giovanni Battista Morgagni disprove the theory of the four humours?

Answer 15

He published a book which showed the difference between diseased organs and normal ones

Question 16

Where did the blood from early blood transfusions come from? Were they successful?

Answer 16

Animals

There were initially successful however many deaths occurred from incompatible matches.

Question 17

Who invented the compound microscope?

Answer 17

Created by Dutch spectacle makers Hans and Zacharias Jansen

Question 18

What did Robert Hooke use the microscope to see?

Answer 18

Robert Hooke used the microscope to first describe cells

Question 19

What did Anton von Leewenhoek discover under the microscope?

Answer 19

popularized the medical use of the microscope describing sperm cells, red blood cells, muscles, as well as bacteria and protozoa

Question 20

What did Gabriel David Fahrenheit invent?

Answer 20

Invented the alcohol thermometer

and the mercury thermometer and the temperature scale

Question 21

What was the first method for controlling smallpox? Explain

Answer 21

Variolation – inserting pus from a smallpox pustule into a scratch on someone unaffected

didn’t always work

Question 22

What was interesting about cowpox?

Answer 22

Milk Maids would get cowpox but then they would never catch smallpox

Question 23

What did Benjamin Jesty do?

Answer 23

he took pus from a cowpox pustule and inoculated his wife and children

Question 24

How did Jenner test to see if cowpox helped make immunity to smallpox?

Answer 24

vaccinating an 8 year old boy with cowpox, then Six weeks later he infected the boy with smallpox, the boy became immune

he did 23 more testings then published his findings

Question 25

Explain how the living vaccine worked?

Answer 25

To vaccinate the colonies: He sent 22 children who had never suffered from smallpox and two who were recently vaccinated. Every ten days of travel 2 children would be vaccinated by the previous two children

Question 26

What is the difference between anesthesia and analgesia?

Answer 26

Local Anesthesia- numbing particular parts of the body & General Anesthesia- a state of temporary induced loss of sensation or awareness Analgesia– the blunting of the conscious perception of pain, reduces the pain but doesn’t remove it completely

Question 27

Why was a patient preparing for an operation compared with a condemned criminal preparing for execution?

Answer 27

Without pain killer surgery was torturous

Question 28

How was painless childbirth possible?

Answer 28

using chloroform

Question 29

Why was cocaine a useful drug for surgery?

Answer 29

when injected, it can numb extensive areas

Question 30

What was the tree the aspirin comes from?

Answer 30

White Willow Tree

Question 31

How was aspirin discovered?

Answer 31

Suffering from fever and chewed on a twig of the white willow tree - he knew some plants had medicinal properties. Tasted extremely bitter but relieved his pain. Referred this to 50 others and it never failed to cure them

Question 32

What was the chemical name for aspirin?

Answer 32

acetyl salicylic acid

Question 33

Besides pain relief, how else does aspirin affect the body?

Answer 33

reduced fevers and inflammation

Question 34

What were some of the uses for opium?

Answer 34

Medication, cholera, dysentery, toothache, flatulence, insanity and menopause

Question 35

When did opium start being imported to America in large amounts?

Answer 35

1898-1902

Question 36

What two drugs were isolated from opium in 1803?

Answer 36

Morphine & Codeine

Question 37

What is a sphygmomanometer used for?

Answer 37

To measure blood pressure from outside the body.

Question 38

What is a spirometer used for?

Answer 38

gauged the lungs vital capacity

Question 39

Where do the numbers on Fahrenheit’s thermometer come from?

Answer 39

0F- A mixture of ice and sea salt, 32F-the freezing point of water 96F normal body temperature

Question 40

In the 19th Century many mothers died a few weeks after childbirth. What was it called and what were their symptoms?

Answer 40

Childbed High temperature, pain in lower abdomen, swelling of the pelvic tissue, abscesses, peritonitis, septicemia, delirium and heart failure

Question 41

What did Ignaz Semmelweis say the differences between ward 1 and 2 were?

Answer 41

The medical student ward had a mortality rate of 29% and the midwife ward only had 3%

Question 42

The doctors in charge of the hospital had their own thoughts on what caused the deaths. Explain those thoughts. Why did Ignaz Semmelweis disagree with this?

Answer 42

Doctors thought: Childbed fever was caused by a ‘miasma’ – infectious vapor – present in the atmosphere. Semmelweis thought: “If miasma was present in the atmosphere both wards would have equal amounts of infection.”

Question 43

How did Ignaz Semmelweis draw a connection between the dissections and the deaths?

Answer 43

His friend cut himself during a dissection then died of blood poisoning. He had similar symptoms as the mothers infected with childbed. He found that midwives washed their hands in chlorinated water before treating patients Medical students would go straight from doing autopsies in the morgue to the maternity ward without washing their hands

Question 44

Why did Semmelweis feel guilty at his discovery?

Answer 44

He had inadvertently killed many women when he delivered babies without properly cleaning himself.

Question 45

20. What was the result of making the students wash their hands before delivering babies?

Answer 45

The death rate dropped to just over 3 percent in the first year and then down to 1.27% the following year.

Question 46

What was the reaction by Semmelweis’s fellow colleagues? Praise?

Answer 46

His suggestions were ignored, he was eventually fired.

Question 47

What was interesting/ironic about his death?

Answer 47

He cut himself during his last operation and died by the same disease he fought to protect mothers from

Question 48

Before Leeuwenhoek explained bacteria and protozoa how had people thought disease traveled?

Answer 48

"minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes" Vast majority of doctors and scientists believed diseases were caused and spread by certain concentrations of climate, environment and poor hygiene or ill defined ‘miasma’ in the air

Question 49

What was the theory of spontaneous generation?

Answer 49

that new life could form in decaying matter

Question 50

What did Pasteur find causes beer to ferment and milk to sour?

Answer 50

micro-organisms

Question 51

Explain Pasteur method of eliminating microbes from milk.

Answer 51

Pasteurization – the heating of milk to a certain temperature for a certain amount of time

Question 52

What did Robert Koch do?

Answer 52

First person to grow bacteria on a solid media Used gelatin first Switched to agar jelly with added nutrients This produced pure cultures

Question 53

What are the 'Henle-Koch postulates'?

Answer 53

1. A specific organism must be identified in all cases of an infectious disease 2.Pure cultures of the organism must be obtained. 3. Organisms derived from pure cultures must reproduce the disease in experimental animals 4. The organisms must be recovered from the experimental animals.

Question 54

How was Cholera transmitted?

Answer 54

Mainly by drinking water.

Question 55

29. What are the symptoms of Cholera?

Answer 55

Diarrhea Loss of water weight Not being able to keep down water

Question 56

How did Cholera spread?

Answer 56

Bed linen, contaminated drinking water from feces, and other places you could find dried up bits of contaminate.

Question 57

What are early symptoms of Rabies?

Answer 57

Headache and Vomiting.

Question 58

What are later symptoms of Rabies?

Answer 58

High fever and powerful spasms of the jaw, throat, and breathing muscles. Hydrophobia (fear of water) may appear – not all victims develop this. Swallowing becomes impossible Coma Death due to heart failure

Question 59

How does Rabies move from victim to victim?

Answer 59

Saliva of infected animals Lick an open cut A bite will infect

Question 60

How long does it take humans to develop Rabies?

Answer 60

20-90 Days

Question 61

What could speed up a human developing rabies?

Answer 61

A bite close to the head

Question 62

What was Bardsley’s suggestion to limit Rabies in Britain?

Answer 62

he suggested quarantining dogs being imported to the country for that time to determine if they had rabies

Question 63

Why couldn’t Pasteur see rabies under a microscope?

Answer 63

It’s a virus which is too small to be seen by compound microscopes

Question 64

How did Pasteur create the vaccine for Rabies? at least a paragraph

Answer 64

He injected rabies riddled material (usually nerve tissue) into the brains of uninfected rabbits, after doing this a few times he saw that the rabbits always died of Rabies When dogs were infected this way they didn’t always become infected so they called this weaker virus the fixed virus. He then would take the spinal cord of rabbits that died of rabies and suspend them of potassium hydroxide which dried and killed most of the virus. He injected this material into dogs as the vaccine. He then took a control group of dogs and a group of dogs he vaccinated. All the vaccinated dogs were fine. Most of control became infected.

Question 65

What inspired Pasteur to test the vaccine on humans?

Answer 65

A boy who had just been bitten by a dog they thought had rabies. They figured the boy would die if he wasn’t vaccinated.

Question 66

Why is Rabies not found in England but still can be found in the US?

Answer 66

England is an island so they started testing animals before importing them. The US has more wild animals that can carry the disease like squirrels and skunks which still can infect American dogs.

Question 67

How were so many wounds infected during surgery?

Answer 67

The doctors thought that they should wait to clean their instruments until they finished the operation.

Question 68

What did Joseph Lister use as his antiseptic agent and why?

Answer 68

Carbolic acid He heard it had remarkable abilities to disinfect sewage

Question 69

What was the first successful use of the antiseptic? What were negative effects?

Answer 69

A boy was run over by a cart and broke his leg. Lister used linseed oil and the carbolic acid to wash the wound first. He covered the wound with tin foil to prevent evaporation of the antiseptic. The down side was the acid had burned the boy’s skin in some areas.

Question 70

What was Cholera?

Answer 70

infection of the small intestine caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholera

Question 71

What was Dysentary?

Answer 71

an inflammatory disorder of the intestine