Hate crime Flashcards
What are the key readings?
What is Hate Crime?
‘Any criminal offence which is perceived, by the victim or any other person, to be motivated by a hostility or prejudice…’
What are the five Protected Characteristics monitored by the police as ‘strands’ of hate crime?
- Race
- Religion
- Disability
- Sexual Orientation
- Transgender status
Is there a single piece of legislation for hate crime in the UK?
No, there is no single piece of legislation.
What does the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 address regarding hate crimes?
Racially and religiously aggravated offences including assaults, criminal damage, harassment, stalking, and several public order offences (ss. 28–32)
When was the highest rate for hate crimes 2012-2023?
2021/2022
What is an offence that is NOT considered a hate crime?
An offence motivated by hatred towards a characteristic not centrally monitored (e.g., age or gender).
True or False: Terrorism is always considered a hate crime.
False
What are examples of racially or religiously aggravated offences?
- Racially or religiously aggravated assault with injury
- Racially or religiously aggravated harassment
- Racially or religiously aggravated public fear, alarm or distress
- Racially or religiously aggravated criminal damage
What was the estimated number of incidents of hate crime in the Crime Survey of England and Wales for 2020?
190,000 incidents
What percentage change in hate crime incidents was observed from 2021/22 to 2022/23 for Race?
-6%
What was the total number of offences recorded in 2022/23?
145,214
What is the highest number of hate crime (religion)?
Muslim
What is the definition of hate crime according to Mark Walters (2010)?
Hate crime is defined as any type of crime or anti-social act aimed at intimidating and harming the victim which has been motivated (or partly motivated) by a prejudice based on a generalisation about the victim’s actual or perceived membership of an identity group.
What did previous hate crime research focus on?
Amount of hidden hate crimes
Which groups should be considerd as hate crimes victims
Relationships between victims and offenders
The impact on victims and communities
What do studies indicate regarding the psychological impact of hate crime on victims?
Victims of bias-motivated violence are more likely to experience greater psychological distress, higher levels of post-traumatic stress, depression, and anxiety.
Fill in the blank: Hate crime is associated with significantly greater psychological ______ than non-hate victimization.
trauma
Who looked at hate crimes and what they associate with?
Fetzer & Pezzella 2019
What did Fetzer & Pezzella find?
Find hate crime was associated with significantly greater psychological trauma, but could not disentangle emotional impact from offence severity
What did ONS (2020) find?
Points to more emotional impacts of hate crime, but also fail to isolate this from offence severity
What did Iganski & Lagou (2009) find?
They confirm greater emotional impacts of hate crimes (covering race, religion, disability, and sexual orientation) but did not consider individual differences that may also be associated with emotional reactions to crime
How is the CSEW used?
Conducted annually using a representative sample of around 40,000 per year
Violent victimization is (reassuringly) comparatively rare (< 2%)
And from this group only a small minority (circa 1-5%) report a hate motivation limiting its scope for in-depth analysis of hate crime
Can also report on multiple incidents (both linked and unlinked) typically requiring focus on incidents or victims but not both.
We combine multiple (in our case 10) years of data and use multilevel models to include information on victims, incidents [and offenders] simultaneously
Comparing victims and offences
Addressing if hate crimes hurt more they match the victims of hate crimes to similar victims of non-hate crimes
Identification of similar offences
Look for similar perpetrator characteristics
Use of regression models
Emotional robustness?
Consistent evidence that those who experience religious motivated vandalism and violence are more ER
Due to religious support + netwprld
What demographic groups reportedly experience greater emotional impacts of victimization?
- Females
- Older people
- Ethnic minorities
Who looked at hate crime perpetuator research?
Sibbet (1997)
McDevitt et al (2002)
What did Sibbit (1997) do and find?
Used case studies to show that perpetrators were of all ages, male and female and often involved in other acts
What did McDevitt et al do and find?
Used 169 case files and distinguished ‘thrill’ offenders and ‘defensive’ offenders with most (66%) thrill.
What are the characteristics of violent hate crime offenders according to Jolliffe & Farrington (2019)?
- Older
- More previous offences
- More versatile in types of crime
What is the average age at the index offence for hate crime offenders?
31.1 years
What percentage of hate crime offenders have previous offences?
95.7%
What is the average frequency of total violence among hate crime offenders?
24.5%
What type of hate crime offenders were found to be predominantly white males under 30?
Hate offenders
What was the prevalence of violent hate crime offenders compared to violent non-hate offenders?
287 Violent Hate offenders vs 9,170 Violent Non-hate offenders
Characteristics of VH offenders?
Older (longer criminal careers)
Significantly greater number of previous offences
More versatile (av. 8.0 compared to 7.5)
More previous imprisonments
Fill in the blank: Some evidence suggests that the impact of victimisation is getting worse for those with _______ and _______ violent victimisation.
gender, disability
What does the term ‘hate crime’ encompass according to academic definitions?
Any crime motivated by prejudice against a person’s actual or perceived identity.
True or False: The relationship between victims and offenders in hate crimes has been well studied.
False
What is the percentage of hate crime offenders that reoffend?
62%
This percentage is compared to 63% of non-hate crime offenders, which is not significant.
What is the average number of offences for hate crime offenders?
5.4 (sd 5.1)
This is compared to 5.7 (sd 5.3) for non-hate crime offenders.
What is the median number of days to reoffence for hate crime offenders?
59 days
This is compared to 50 days for non-hate crime offenders.
What does OGRS stand for?
Offender Group Reconviction Scale
It predicts the chances of reoffending within a year.
What percentage of matched hate crime offenders reoffend?
57%
This is compared to 54% of non-hate crime offenders, which is not significant.
What is the significance of the difference in hate reoffence rates between matched offenders?
9.3% hate reoffence compared to 3.5%
This difference is significant.
What two groups of hate crime offenders were identified?
- Those who offend by chance in a prolific offending career
- Those for whom hate is embedded
These groups show differing patterns in reoffending.
What is a limitation noted in the study regarding hate crime offenders?
Limited follow-up period
This affects the comprehensiveness of the offender’s history.
True or False: The study found that being a victim of a hate crime does not hurt more for religious vandalism.
True
What is the implication of the findings for interventions aimed at reducing hate crimes?
Interventions should consider the different profiles of hate crime offenders
This includes targeting those who are more likely to reoffend with hate crimes.
What percentage of unmatched hate crime offenders reoffend?
71%
This percentage is significantly higher compared to 57% and 54% of matched offenders.
Fill in the blank: Almost like there are ______ groups of hate crime offenders.
[two]
What is a key finding about hate crime offenders with extensive criminal histories?
Many are likely to reoffend with another hate crime
This indicates a potential pattern in their offending behavior.
