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genetics 2 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

transcription occurs in nucleus, mRNA from DNA, antisense strand is used to transcribe RNA from 3’ to 5’
translation occurs in ribosome, protein is made, codons read from 5’ to 3’

A

central dogma (francis crick)

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2
Q

codons read in unbroken chain, groups of codons called reading frames, clear start and stop location

A

continuity

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3
Q

each amino acids is associated with tree possible codons, first two bases are what matter, third is wobble position

A

redundancy

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4
Q

third letter of codon, may code for same amino acid regardless, protects against mutation e.g. point mutation, still codes for same amino acid, contributes to efficiency

A

wobble position

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5
Q

genetic code is the same in all living organisms bacteria to animals, evolutionary significance, indicates common ancestor

A

universality

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6
Q

not evenly spaced, inherited, length and number of chromosomes not related

A

genes

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7
Q

increase or decrease gene expression, e.g. promoter sequences which help to determine which genetic processes will be activated

A

regulatory regions

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8
Q

binding site for the apparatus that copies a gene and it can either block or enhance binding, determining when a specific gene will be expressed

A

promoter sequence

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9
Q

exons, code for a particular polypeptide product

A

coding regions

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10
Q

introns, interspersed with exons

A

non coding regions

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11
Q

developmental and regulatory functions, regulate gene expression, can silence or initiate gene activity and is correlated with developmental complexity

A

introns

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12
Q

a gene can code for more than one polypeptide product by copying different combinations of exons

A

alternative splicing

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13
Q

frequency (more) and length (longer) of introns is positively correlated with the developmental complexity of an organism

A

developmental complexity

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14
Q

repetitive sequences of DNA that contain base pairs that repeat over and over - minisatellites and microsatellites

A

variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs)

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15
Q

high mutation rate, leading to diversity in population, e.g. telomeres and centromeres

A

minisatellites

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16
Q

shorter than minisatellites, show variation in length (# of repeats) among individuals, can be used in DNA fingerprinting, paternity testing, forensics etc.

A

microsatellites

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17
Q

clusters of genes that are the same/very similar and are located in a specific region, usually code for products in high demand e.g. genes that code for histone proteins

A

multigene families

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18
Q

jumping genes, sequences of DNA randomly inserted throughout genome, contribute to existence of multigene families: are either LINES (long interspersed nuclear elements) or SINES (short interspersed nuclear elements)

A

transposons

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19
Q

copies of the genes of multigene families that have mutated to the point where they no longer function

A

pseudogenes

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20
Q

mRNA, snRNA, tRNA, rRNA

A

types of RNA involved in protein synthesis

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21
Q

messenger RNA, carries a blueprint of DNA

A

mRNA

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22
Q

small nuclear RNA, joins with proteins to create spliceosomes which cut out introns and join exons together in mRNA

A

snRNA

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23
Q

transfer RNA, clover leaf shaped molecule that carries amino acids to the mRNA for polypeptide formation

A

tRNA

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24
Q

ribosomal RNA, forms the active rivosome and assists in reading the mRNA

A

rRNA

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25
Q

initiation, elongation, termination

A

transcription steps

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26
Q

antisense strand selected to synthesize, transcriptions begins at the promoter sequence when transcription factors bind to the TATA box, RNA polymerase begins working, 5’ to 3’

A

initiation

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27
Q

promoter sequence, rich in T and A, binding site of transcription facors

A

TATA box

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28
Q

completed assembly of transition factors and RNA polymerase on the promoter

A

transcription initiation complex

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29
Q

rna polymerase moves along DNA, unwinding a section and synthesizing mRNA from 5’ to 3’, adding nucleotides, double helix reforms after RNA polymerase passes through and the mRNA strand separates from the DNA, more than 1 mRNA can be created at a time due to many RNA polymerases

A

elongation

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30
Q

RNA polymerase does not need rna primers, does not proofread (transcription less accurate), rna polymerase subs T for U

A

differences between transcription and DNA replication

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31
Q

termination sequence (rich in G & C followed by string of A on antisense strand) signals for stop, G&C form base pairs with itself and fold into hairpin loop structure, RNA polymerase separates from DNA antisense terminating transcription and RNA polymerase can now bind to another promoter sequence

A

termination

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32
Q

needs to undergo processing, 5’ end is capped with a 5’ cap of 7 guanine nucleotides and a long series of adenine nucleotides are added to the 3’ end of mRNA (poly A tail) and mRNA splicing occurs to remove introns

A

precursor mRNA

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33
Q

7 guanine nucleotides, protects it from degenerative enzymes and serves as the initial attachment site of mRNA for translation to occur

A

5’ cap

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34
Q

protects mRNA from degradative enzymes in cytoplasm, added by poly A polymerase

A

poly A tail

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35
Q

spliceosome (premRNA, proteins and snRNA) cleave premRNA at ends of each intron, splicing together exons by causing introns to loop out

A

mRNA splicing

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36
Q

base pairing btwn complementary nucleotides make clover leaf shape, has 2 binding sites one for mRNA and one for amino acid

A

transfer RNA (tRNA)

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37
Q

anticodon has a nucleotide triplet that is complementary to mRNA codon, anticodon can pair with more than one codon due to third nucleotide in wobble position

A

mRNA binding site

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38
Q

accepting end, 3’ end, binds to specific amino acid determined by anticodon mRNA pairing

A

amino acid attachment site

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39
Q

tRNA attached to amino acid

A

amino-acytl tRNA (aa-tRNA)

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40
Q

site of translation, made up of two subunits large and small

A

ribosomes

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41
Q

contains 2 linear strands of rRNA and abt 30 proteins

A

large subunit

42
Q

1 linear strand of rRNA and abt 20 proteins

A

small subunit

43
Q

A site, P site, E site

A

sites on active ribosome

44
Q

exit site

A

E site

45
Q

polypeptide (peptidyl-tRNA) binding site

A

P site

46
Q

amino acid (amino acyl tRNA) binding site

A

A site

47
Q

with help from initiation factors (IF), small subunit of ribosome binds to a leader sequence just ahead of the AUG, next initiator RNA with anticodon UAC and methionine base pairs with AUG with help from initiation factors, initiator aa-tRNA, mRNA and small subunit of the ribosome form the initiation complex, large subunit of the ribosome

A

initiation

48
Q

located in the p site of the ribosome

A

initiator aa-tRNA

49
Q

another aa-tRNA then base pairs with the next codon on the mRNA at the A-site, methionine from the initiator aa-tRNA is covalently linked to the incoming amino acid forming a peptide bond between the amino acids btwn aino acids, ribosomes moves along mRNA from 5’ to 3’ to the next codon translocation, initator tRNA moves into the E site (released) incoming aa-tRNA moves to P site, A site now open for the arrival of the next aa-tRNA

A

elongation

50
Q

when ribosome reaches mRNA stop codon in A site, release factor binds in A site, polypeptide is released from tRNA, tRNAs are released from ribosome and will be used again, ribosome separates into its large and small subunits which will be used again

A

termination

51
Q

many ribosomes bound to one mRNA

A

polyribosome (polysome)

52
Q

always needed and always being transcribed/translated

A

housekeeping genes

53
Q

turning specific genes on or off

A

gene regulation

54
Q

transcriptional, post transcriptional, translational, post translational

A

gene control types

55
Q

regulates which genes are transcribed, controls rate of transcription (introns)

A

transcriptional

56
Q

introns are removed and exons are spliced together to create mRNA

A

post transcriptional

57
Q

controls rate of translation and lifespan of mRNA strand (poly A tail)

A

translational

58
Q

controls the lifespan of the active functional protein

A

post translational

59
Q

recognized by regulatory proteins that bind to DNA sequence to control transcription

A

regulatory sites

60
Q

e. coli has lac z, which codes for b-galactosidase (splits lactose into glucose and galactose) on the lac operon, which is made of 3 genes (lac z, lac y, lac a) that code for proteins, promoter and regulatory sequence - operator. operator functions as a control, either allowing RNA polymerase to begin transcription or preventing transcription from occurring, inducible operon

A

operon model (bacteria)

61
Q

in absence of lactose, repressor protein (lac I) binds to operator region, making it impossible for RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter, no transcription of lac operon gene.
if lactose is present, it binds to lac I repressor, causing the repressor to change shape and detach from the operator site. Lactose acts as an inducer (signal molecule) and RNA polymerase then binds to promoter sequence and transcription can occur

A

negative gene regulation in lac operon

62
Q

repressible operon, contains 5 genes, a promoter and an operator sequence. Outside operon, separate gene codes for a repressor protein. Normally e. coli makes enzymes that synthesize tryptophan but if tryp is present, it will bind to repressor (tryp now a corepressor molecule) changing shape and allowing repressor to bind to operator, blocking transcription

A

co repression in tryp operon

63
Q

altering a DNA sequence and multiplying a particular gene or gene products

A

genetic engineering

64
Q

enzymes found in bacteria that act as molecular scissors and can cut double stranded DNA at its recognition site by disrupting hydrogen bonds between bases and phosphodiester bonds in backbone

A

restriction endonucleases

65
Q

PALINDROMIC !! usually 4-8 base pairs long and have 2 fold symmetry (same when read 3’-5’ and 5’-3’)

A

recognition sites

66
Q

short single stranded overhangs lacking complementary bases, can be joined tgt with another fragment cut by the same restriction endonucleases through complementary base pairing

A

sticky ends

67
Q

restriction endonuclease cleaves btwn nucleotides opposite each other, no overhang

A

blunt ends

68
Q

dna made up of different organisms spliced together

A

recombinant dna

69
Q

naturally attracted by complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonding, then DNA ligase reforms the phosphodiester bonds through condensation reactions

A

sticky ends rejoining

70
Q

dont have natural attractions, must use t4 DNA ligase

A

blunt ends rejoining

71
Q

to protect bacteria from viruses by cutting up foreign DNA, needs to recognize own DNA (through methylation)

A

role of restriction endonucleases

72
Q

methylases are enzymes that add a methyl group to DNA at recognition site, no longer recognized by restriction endonuclease

A

methylation

73
Q

independent of bacterial chromosome, lack a protein coat, small, exist naturally in cytoplasm of bacteria, can be shared btwn bacteria through bacterial conjugation

A

plasmids

74
Q

insert foreign gene in plasmid, so that it produces that gene, then restriction endonuclease is used to create sticky ends, inserted into plasmid, recombinant DNA is formed (how insulin is made)

A

transformation

75
Q

plasmid that contains foreign DNA

A

vector

76
Q

change in DNA of an organism can be harmful - genetic disorder, neutral/silent or benefit

A

mutations

77
Q

occur in gonads and may be inherited, most mutations occur in somatic cells and aren’t inherited

A

genetic mutations

78
Q

due to errors in DNA replication

A

spontaneous mutations

79
Q

from exposure to mutagens directly altering DNA in cells

A

induced mutations

80
Q

substance that can cause mutations and directly alters the DNA in cells

A

mutagen

81
Q

radiation, uv light, x rays

A

physical mutagens

82
Q

tobacco smoke, pollutants e.g. carbon monoxide, base analogs (mimic DNA nucleotides) , intercalating agents

A

chemical mutagens

83
Q

one base or small grp of bases, substitution, insertion, deletion, inversion of two adjoining base pairs

A

point mutations

84
Q

insertion or deletion of a base

A

frameshift mutations

85
Q

translocations - movements of entire genes from one chromosome to another

A

chromosomal mutations

86
Q

triplet of codons

A

reading frame

87
Q

nucleic acid fragments are separated by their differing lengths

A

size separation

88
Q

DNA is negatively charged bc of phosphates and will move toward positive electrode

A

charge separation

89
Q

gel box containing agarose gel covered in buffer solution, prevents a medium for flow of electric current and prevents overheating and drying out, placed between two electrodes and the wells of the gel are at the negative electrode

A

gel electrophoresis

90
Q

dna fragments of known size placed at loading wells of negative electrode, that can be used for comparison aka DNA ladder, loading dyes are used as well

A

molecular markers

91
Q

ethidium bromide, chemical that inserts itself and binds to DNA carcinogenic and fluorescent under UV light

A

DNA staining

92
Q

created dna sequencing used to determine sequence of bases in a dna strand and won nobel prize

A

sanger

93
Q

chains of DNA sequences are terminated when dideoxynucleotides ddNTP are added, which prevent the binding of the next nucleotide, don’t have a hydroxyl group on 3’ end of sugar and therefore nucleotide cant attach and dye will make fluorescent identifying which base terminated sequence

A

sanger sequencing

94
Q

so that entire sequence can be analysed and multiple lengths of the chain will be created

A

4 diff ddNTPS

95
Q

restriction enzyme digestion

A

cutting dna

96
Q

in vitro polymerase chain reaction

A

amplifying dna

97
Q

gel electrophoresis and dye staining

A

visualizing dna

98
Q

sanger sequence

A

sequencing dna

99
Q

create millions of copies, Dr. kary mullis, uses taq polymerase as it can withstand high temps and not denature unlike dna polymerase iii

A

polymerase chain reaction

100
Q

denaturation to break hydrogen bonds + separate strands, primer annealing (2) are added to each strand and anneal to complementary sequences at target, elongation polymerase attaches to primers to create complementary copies of target sequence on both strands

A

pcr cycle

101
Q

paternity testing, forensics testing

A

applications of pcr and dna sequencing

bio (19 decks)

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