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Genetics Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are nucleotides

A

Nitrogen-containing organic substances that form the base of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

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2
Q

What do all nucleotides contain (3)

A
  1. A phosphate group
  2. A pentose sugar
  3. A nitrogen containing base
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3
Q

How to draw a nucleotide

A

House - pentagon (Pentose sugar) , garage - rectangle (nitrogenous base), satellite dish - circle (phosphate group)

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4
Q

What are the sugars made of in DNA and RNA

A

DNA - deoxyribose
RNA - ribose

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5
Q

What are the four nitrogenous bases

A
  1. Adenine
  2. Thymine
  3. Cytosine
  4. Guarnine
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6
Q

How do the nitrogenous bases pair

A

Adenine + Thymine
Cytosine + Guanine

Apple tart + chocolate gâteau

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7
Q

What is deoxyribonucleic acid

A

The hereditary code in living organisms

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8
Q

What does deoxyribonucleic acid consist of

A

The four nitrogenous bases

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9
Q

What is the definition of a gene

A

A section of DNA which codes for a particular protein

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10
Q

What is the central dogma

A

The idea of how protein is synthesised from DNA

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11
Q

How does RNA differ to DNA

A
  1. Single stranded
  2. Has ribose not deoxyribose
  3. Has uracil which is complementary to adenine (it replaces thymine in RNA)
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12
Q

How to draw a GCSE level nucleus

A

Circle
Add chromosomes
Add some pores

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13
Q

What are the steps of the central dogma (see diagram on nucleotides and DNA note)

A
  1. Chromosome
  2. Transcription
  3. MRNA takes it out of the nucleus
  4. Passes through a ribosome
  5. Becomes a polypeptide
  6. Becomes the final product e.g. insulin from chromosome 11
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14
Q

What replaces thymine in RNA

A

Uracil (U)

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15
Q

How do the DNA template base + the transfer RNA anticodon relate to the messenger RNA codon

A

They are complementary

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16
Q

Name 2 proteins and their functions

A
  1. Haemoglobin - carries oxygen throughout the body
  2. Insulin - to turn food into energy, moving sugar from blood into other tissues for storage
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17
Q

What are polypeptides

A

Chains of amino acids

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18
Q

How do multiple polypeptides create proteins

A

They fold up and join with other polypeptides

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19
Q

What is transcription

A

Making an RNA copy of the DNA sequence. mRNA is formed.

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20
Q

What is translation

A

Assembling the amino acids in the correct order following the sequence of bases on mRNA

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21
Q

Where does translation occur

A

Ribosomes

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22
Q

What leaves the nucleus and attaches to the ribosome during translation

A

mRNA

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23
Q

What is a codon

A

Every triplet of bases on the messenger RNA

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24
Q

What does tRNA do

A

Carries amino acids to the ribosome

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25
Q

What is the full name of tRNA

A

Transfer RNA

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26
Q

What is the triplet of bases on tRNA called

A

An anticodon

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27
Q

What does the anticodon on tRNA match with

A

COMPLEMENTARY (with an E) bases on the codons on the RNA

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28
Q

How is a polypeptide chain formed from amino acids

A

Ribosomes create bonds

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29
Q

What are the steps of protein synthesis

A
  1. mRNA is created from DNA via transcription
  2. The RNA bases are lined up in the correct order using complEmentary base pairings
  3. The amino acids are assembled in the correct order via translation
  4. tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome
  5. The ribosome forms bonds between the amino acids to make a polypeptide chain
  6. The polypeptide folds and joins up with other polypeptides to form a protein
30
Q

How do you go from DNA template base sequence to mRNA codon

A

Use the complementary base (U replaces T in RNA)

31
Q

What does U stand for in RNA

A

Uracil

32
Q

What is an allele

A

An alternative version of a gene e.g. blonde hair, brown hair etc. In this case the gene is hair colour

33
Q

How many alleles for each gene do we have

A

2 (1 from each parent)

34
Q

What is the name for if you get the same allele from each parent

A

Homozygous (dominant/recessive - depending on if they are both dominant or recessive)

35
Q

What is it called if you have different alleles from each parent

A

Heterozygous

36
Q

Can you have 2 different recessive alleles and why/why not

A

No - one will always be dominant over another. Eg if this is the dominance order from L-R for eye colour: brown, green, blue. If you get brown and then blue or green, blue or green will be recessive, but if you get blue and green, the green becomes dominant over the blue

37
Q

What is the phenotype

A

The observable characteristics of an individual e.g. blue eyes

38
Q

What is the genotype

A

The genetic make-up of an individual e.g. ee

39
Q

Why does the Y chromosome affect the gender

A

It carries the sex-determining gene, which triggers the development of testes. In the absence of a Y chromosome, ovaries develop.

40
Q

Which is male and which is female
XX
XY

A

XX - Female
XY - Male

41
Q

When using letters for alleles, which two letters must you never use and why

A

X and Y - it is well known that X and Y are the sex-determining genes

42
Q

What is a punit grid

A

A grid to show the likelihood of each possible allele combination for offspring (see Inheritance note for diagram please)

43
Q

Does a dominant allele produce the same phenotype in heterozygotes and homozygotes

A

Yes

44
Q

Are dominant or recessive usually upper or lower case

A

Dominant = upper
Recessive = lower

45
Q

What is a good way to give a letter for alleles of a gene

A

The letter that makes sense (eg for eye colour it would be e)

Then E for dominant and e for recessive

46
Q

How many chromosomes does a human body cell have

A

46 (23 pairs)

47
Q

What are the four stages of mitosis

A
  1. Prophase
  2. Metaphase
  3. Anaphase
  4. Telophase
48
Q

What is a haploid cell and give some examples

A

Only one copy of every chromosome so only 23. Sperm and egg only

49
Q

What is mitosis

A

A diploid cell (46) splitting into 2 diploid cells

50
Q

How many chromosomes does a diploid cell have and give an example of a diploid cell

A

46 - all body cells except sperm and egg

51
Q

What is meiosis

A

A diploid cell splits into 2 diploid cells, which both split into 2 haploid cells each (so you end up with 4 haploid cells)

52
Q

When does mitosis occur

A

During growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction

53
Q

Name 6 differences between mitosis and meiosis

A
  1. Mitosis ends diploid, meiosis ends haploid
  2. Mitosis somatic cells (not sex cells) meiosis sex cells
  3. Mitosis divides into 2 cells, meiosis divides into 4 cells
  4. Mitosis asexual reproduction, meiosis sexual reproduction
  5. Mitosis produces genetically identical cells, but meiosis doesnt produce genetically identical cells
  6. Mitosis 1 round of division, meiosis 2 rounds
54
Q

What steps does meiosis consist of

A

One step of DNA replication followed by 2 cell divisions

55
Q

What are somatic cells

A

Cells that are not used in reproduction

56
Q

What are mutations

A

Mistakes in the DNA sequence

57
Q

What happens to the DNA sequence in the event of a mutation

A

The DNA sequence is changed

58
Q

Do all mutations cause change and why

A

No - the same amino acid can be coded for

59
Q

What happens if the mutation causes the protein made to change

A

Consequences - good or bad, big or small

60
Q

What causes mutations

A

They can be random or caused by mutagens

61
Q

Name 4 mutagens

A
  1. Cigarette smoke
  2. X-rays
  3. Asbestos
  4. Radiation
62
Q

What is the definition of differentiation

A

Processes taking place during the development of an embryo, where cells become specialised to carry out specific functions

63
Q

Where does differentiation start from

A

Stem cells that become specialised e.g. red blood cells

64
Q

When can cell differentiation occur

A

Any time in life, not just when you are an embryo

65
Q

What are stem cells

A

Cells that can divide by mitosis but have not been differentiated

66
Q

Can stem cells differentiate into specialised cells

A

Yes

67
Q

How do stem cells differentiate into specialised cells

A

They regulate the expression of genes in the cell. Some genes are “switched on” whilst others are “switched off”, which means that cells produce some proteins but not others, eventually leading to the development of a particular type of cell

68
Q

What can stem cells be used to do

A

Replace damaged or malfunctioning cells

69
Q

Name 2 things stem cells can be used to cure and how

A

Blindness (making new retinal cells)

Diabetes (making new pancreatic cells to secrete insulin)

70
Q

Where are stem cells found

A

In the developing embryo and in adult tissues (e.g. skin and bone marrow)

71
Q

Can stem cells found found in adults e.g in bone marrow differentiate into anything

A

No - bone marrow stem cells can only differentiate into blood cells (they are called haematopoietic)

Biology (4 decks)

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