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Coordination And Response Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Name the steps of the reflex arc in order of how the electrical impulse moves (7)

A
  1. Stimulus
  2. Receptor
  3. Sensory neurone
  4. Relay neurone
  5. Motor neurone
  6. Effector
  7. Response
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2
Q

Which parts of the reflex arc are in the coordinator (brain or spinal chord)

A
  1. Sensory neurone
  2. Relay neurone
  3. Motor neurone
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3
Q

Which parts of the reflex arc are in the coordinator (brain or spinal chord)

A
  1. Sensory neurone
  2. Relay neurone
  3. Motor neurone
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4
Q

Which neurone is fully within the coordinator (brain or spinal chord)

A

Relay neurone

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5
Q

How does the body’s reflexes react when you touch a burning candle

A
  1. Receptor cells in the skin detect a stimulus (the heat of the candle)
  2. Sensory neurone sends impulses to relay neurone in the spinal chord
  3. The relay neurone connects to the motor neurone (and also sends a message to the brain)
  4. The motor neurone sends impulses to the effector
  5. The effector produces a response (the muscle contracts to move the hand away)
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6
Q

How is the spinal chord structured

A

Impulses enter through neurones in the dorsal (back) root. They leave through the motos neurones in the ventral (front) root. Axons and fatty myelin sheaths are on the outside of the spinal cord and are white. Great matter is on the inside - cell bodies. The sensory neurones are in the dorsal root ganglion

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7
Q

What do neurons consist of

A

Elongated cells consisting of a cell host and long, thin axon

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8
Q

What is a synapse

A

A synapse is the small gap between two nerve cells (neurons) where nerve impulses are transferred from one neuron to another.

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9
Q

How does a synapse work

A
  1. An electrical impulse travels down the axon of the first neuron
  2. When the impulse reacher the end of the neuron it triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters
  3. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap to the next neuron
  4. The neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the surface of the next neuron, triggering a new electrical impulse
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10
Q

What are dendrites

A

Thin projections that extend from the cell body and connect with other neurones, allowing electrical impulses to pass from one nerve to the other

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11
Q

What are axons of neurones wrapped in

A

The myelin sheath - an insulating lipid layer

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12
Q

Why does the reflex arc go through the spinal chord instead of the brain

A

It is quicker

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13
Q

What do sensory neurones transmit

A

Messages from sense receptors (eyes, nose etc) to the brain or spinal chord

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14
Q

What do sensory neurones transmit

A

Messages from sense receptors (eyes, nose etc) to the brain or spinal chord

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15
Q

Draw a nerve

A

See Nerve Cells note

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16
Q

Draw a nerve

A

See Nerve Cells note

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17
Q

What is the definition of reflexes

A

Fast, automatic protective biological control systems that link a stimulus to a response

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18
Q

Do reflexes require thinking

A

No

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19
Q

Why are reflexes involuntary

A

The CNS sends electrical signals to the muscles before the brain can pick up the message

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20
Q

What 4 parts make up a motor neurone and how to draw them

A
  1. Cell body (radial graph shape with black nucleus inside)
  2. Dendrites - tiny hair like things coming off all corners of the cell body except 1
  3. Axon - a long line coming off the last spot in the cell body, with dendrites at the end
  4. Myelin sheath - blocks that run along the axon, surrounding/protecting it

See Nerve Cells note

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21
Q

How to simply draw a sensory neuron

A
  1. Axon - line
  2. Myelin sheath - blocks protection the axon
  3. Cell body - a line coming off the axon connecting to a large circle with a nucleus in
  4. Dendrites at each end of the axon

See Nerve Cells note

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22
Q

Where do motor neurons transmit messages to and from

A

Messages from the brain and spinal chord to the muscle and glands

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23
Q

What is a hormone

A

A chemical that is released into the blood from a gland

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24
Q

What is the release of hormones known as

A

Secretion

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25
Q

What are the two types of gland

A

Endocrine and exocrine

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26
Q

What does an endocrine gland do

A

Releases hormones straight into the blood

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27
Q

What do endocrine glands do

A

Release blood into the organs

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28
Q

Which is faster - an electrical nervous signal or a chemical hormonal signal

A

Nervous§

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29
Q

What type of transmission is used for nervous signals and for hormonal signals

A

Nervous - electrical impulses

Hormonal - chemical

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30
Q

Which is more widespread with its effect: hormones or nerves

A

Hormones

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31
Q

What is the duration of the effect of nervous signals and hormones

A

Nervous signals - short
Hormones - long

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32
Q

Where is adrenaline produced

A

The adrenal gland (kidneys)

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33
Q

Where is insulin produced

A

Pancreas

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34
Q

Where is testosterone produced

A

Testes

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35
Q

Where is oestrogen produced

A

The ovary

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36
Q

Name 4 hormones and their functions

A
  1. Adrénaline - prepare body for physical activity
  2. Insulin - lower glucose level in blood
  3. Oestrogen - regulating the menstrual cycle
  4. Testosterone - controls the development of male secondary sexual characteristics
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37
Q

What is a plant response to light called

A

Phototrophism

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38
Q

What is a plant response to water called

A

Hydrotrophism

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39
Q

What is a plant response to gravity called

A

Geotrophism

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40
Q

How can coleoptiles be used to show plant responses

A
  1. They grew and bent towards light normally
  2. When a cap is put on the tip, they grow upwards but do not bend towards the light
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41
Q

What happens when the tip of a coléoptile is cut and a 1. Mica sheet and 2. Gelatine block is placed between it and the rest of the plant

A
  1. When the tip is removed and put on a mica sheet, there is no bending
  2. When the tip is removed and put on a gelatine block, it bends towards the light like normal
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42
Q

What happens when the tip of a coléoptile is removed and only put on one side of the stem

A

The cells on the side with the tip elongate more but the cells on the side without the tip do not, so it bends, without the light direction influencing the direction of bending

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43
Q

What happens when the tip of a coléoptile is removed, put on an agar block for many hours and then the agar block is put on where the tip once was

A

Bending occurs towards the light

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44
Q

How to label an eye diagram

A

See The Human Eye note

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45
Q

What is the sclera and what does it do

A

A tough outer area connected to muscles to move the eye

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46
Q

What is the cornea and what is its function

A

Clear outer area that refracts light

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47
Q

What are the suspensory ligaments and what do they do

A

They are controlled by the ciliary muscle to relax or tighten the lens to change its shape

48
Q

What is the ciliary muscle and what is its function

A

A circular right muscle next to the iris that changes the shape of the lens

49
Q

What does the lens do

A

Refracts light

50
Q

What does the optic nerve do and where is it

A

Behind the eye - it contains sensory neurons to transmit impulses from the retina to the brain

51
Q

What is the retina and what does it do

A

Tissue at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells.

52
Q

What are rod cells sensitive to

A

Light levels

53
Q

What are cone cells sensitive to

A

Colour

54
Q

What is the vitreous humour and what is its function

A

It is a liquid in the middle of the eye. It gives the eye shape - without it the eye would not have the area required to be spherical

55
Q

What happens when the eye sees bright light

A

The circular muscles contract to reduce the pupil size

56
Q

What does the eye do in response to dim light

A

The radial muscles contract to increase the size of the pupil

57
Q

How does the eye focus on distant objects

A

The lens becomes less convex (flatter), the ciliary muscles relax and the suspensory ligaments are pulled tight

58
Q

How does the eye focus on close objects

A

The lens becomes more convex (rounded), the ciliary muscles contract and the suspensory ligaments slack

59
Q

What orientation are light rays from far objects and what does this mean for the lens

A

Almost parallel to each other once they reach the eye - they do not need to be refracted as much

60
Q

What angle do light rays from nearby object come at and what does this mean for the lens

A

They come at angles (not parallel), so need to be refracted more, so the lens must become rounded

61
Q

Where are the rod cells found

A

The periphery of the retina

62
Q

Where are cone cells found

A

The centre of the retina

63
Q

What are the optimal light conditions for rod and cone cells

A

Rod - dim (night)
Cone - bright (day)

64
Q

What is the resolution of cone and rod cells

A

Rod - low
Cone - high

65
Q

How is resolution of eye cells measured

A

The number of cells : one bipolar cell

More cells : 1 bipolar = lower resolution

66
Q

What wavelengths can cone cells do

A

Red, green blue

67
Q

What wavelengths can rod cells do

A

All

68
Q

How many types of rod and cone cells are there

A

Rod - one
Cone - three

69
Q

Which is more abundant - cone or rod cells

A

Rod

70
Q

Which is more abundant - cone or rod cells

A

Rod

71
Q

See The Human Eye note (bottom of it) for diagrams of rod and cone cells

A

Okokokokokokokokokok

I have 750k i sold llorente last night

Ik u havent forgotten that

But dont get distracted from ur revision dont go check it

72
Q

What is the role of the kidneys (2)

A

Excretion - the removal of waste products from the blood e.g. urea

Osmoregulation - controlling water balance of the blood/tissue fluid by removing excess water or excess salt

73
Q

How do we excrete nitrogen from amino acids

A

Urine

74
Q

Where does urine form, go to and how

A

Forms in the kidneys

Passes through tubes called the ureters

Passes to the bladder

75
Q

Label a kidney diagram from google

A

Ok (see The Kidneys note for help)

76
Q

Label a nephron diagram from google

A

Ok (see The Kidneys note for aid

77
Q

How does the nephron help to regulate water levels in blood when we are dehydrated / too hydrated

A
  1. ADH is released by the pituary gland when we are dehydrated
  2. ADH makes the walls of the collecting duct more permeable to water (less if too hydrated)
  3. Water passes back into blood from the collecting duct (water passes from blood to collecting duct when we are too hydrated)
  4. The urine is Lower in volume and more concentrated (greater in volume and more diluted if too hydrated)
78
Q

What are ions

A

Salts

79
Q

Which blood vessel brings blood to the kidney

A

The renal artery

80
Q

Which blood vessel brings blood away from the kidney

A

The renal vein

81
Q

What happens to the blood when it enters the kidney

A

It is put under pressure so small molecules like water, salts, glucose, amino acids and urea are forced out of the capillaries.

82
Q

What happens after the small molecules have been forced out of the blood in the kidneys

A

Some molecules are Selectively Reabsorbed to maintain the correct levels in the blood

83
Q

What happens to molecules that are not selectively reabsorbed

A

They are put into the urine, which leaves the kidney via the ureter

84
Q

How does blood leave the kidney

A

The renal vein

85
Q

What is selective reabsorbsion

A

Only the small molecules that are required are reabsorbed, the ones that are in excess are disposed of via urine

86
Q

Which substances are always reabsorbed in selective reabsorbsion

A

Sodium, amino acids and glucose

87
Q

What is not reabsorbed into the blood

A

Urine

88
Q

Where do non reabsorbed substances go

A

They pass through the nephron and enter the collecting duct, where they form urine, passing into the pelvis and then out into the ureters

89
Q

What is negative feedback

A

A sine graph (peaks and troughs not always same height tho) with the optimal hydration level at the rest point - ADH is secreted at the troughs, so the levels go up, but then eventually they fall again, at which point ADH is again released

90
Q

What is ultrafiltraiton

A

Small molecules are removed from the blood using the gin pressure to squeeze the molecule from the glomerulus to the Bowman’s capsule

91
Q

What molecular weight molecules can be filtered via ultrafiltration

A

Less than 68,000 molecular weight

92
Q

What does ADH do

A

Controls the water content of the blood

93
Q

What are osmoreceptors

A

Receptors in the hypothalamus of the brain which stimulate the pituary gland to secrete ADH when blood is too concentrated

94
Q

How does ADH work

A

ADH allows more water to pass from the collecting duct back into the blood around the loop of Henle by causing more water channels to appear in the wall of the collecting duct (aquaporins)

95
Q

What happens if the blood is too diluted (more water than required)

A
  1. The pituary gland stops secreting ADH
  2. Excess water can move from the blood to the collecting duct
  3. So more water passes into the urine
96
Q

What happens if the blood is too diluted (more water than required)

A
  1. The pituary gland stops secreting ADH
  2. Excess water can move from the blood to the collecting duct
  3. So more water passes into the urine
97
Q

What is homeostasis

A

The maintenance of a constant internal environment

98
Q

What are some homeostatic factors regulated in humans (3)

A
  1. Concentration of water in the blood
  2. Blood glucose levels
  3. Core body temperature
99
Q

Why is homeostasis important in humans (2)

A
  1. A constant body temp is important because it allows enzymes to act at a near-optimal temperature without being denatured
  2. If too much water is lost, the blood will become too viscous, so the brain wont receive enough oxygen
100
Q

What monitors and controls body temperature

A

Receptors in the skin and the brain

101
Q

How do receptors in the skin and the brain detect changes in body temp

A

They detect changes in the temperature of the blood flowing through those areas

102
Q

What is the thermoregulatory centre in the brain called

A

The Hypothalamus

103
Q

What is the optimal body temp

A

37ºC

104
Q

What happens if the body deviates from 37ºC

A

The hypothalamus and skin receptors send out electrical signals that trigger actions or behaviours that increase or decrease heat loss

105
Q

What is the definition of negative feedback

A

A response to bring about the opposite of a stimulus (e.g. too much water, too cold, too much glucose in blood etc)

106
Q

What are 3 things the body does when it is too hot

A
  1. Hair muscles relax; hairs lie flat to allow the escape of heat
  2. Sweat is secreted by sweat glands, which cools the skin by evaporation
  3. Blood flow in capillaries close to the skin surface increases
107
Q

What are 3 things the body does when it is too cold

A
  1. Hair muscles pull on end, so they become erect, which traps a layer of air as an insulating layer
  2. Blood flow in capillaries close to surface of skin is decreased
  3. Shivering - constant involuntary contractions of muscles to generate kinetic energy which warms the body.
108
Q

What is vasodilation

A

When we are too hot, more blood is sent to the capillaries closer to the skin, so more heat is radiated to the surroundings

109
Q

What is vasoconstriction

A

When we are cold, less blood is sent to the capillaries near the surface of the skin, which means less heat is radiated to the cold air

110
Q

What is vasoconstriction

A

When we are cold, less blood is sent to the capillaries near the surface of the skin, which means less heat is radiated to the cold air

111
Q

What is a control

A

A baseline result that does not receive the effect of the experiment e.g. a plant that receives no fertiliser in an experiment to show the effect of fertiliser on the growth rate of a plant species

112
Q

What is a control

A

A baseline result that does not receive the effect of the experiment e.g. a plant that receives no fertiliser in an experiment to show the effect of fertiliser on the growth rate of a plant species. This helps to show the natural growth rate, so you know for the fertiliser plants how much of the growth is due to the fertiliser and how much is natural

113
Q

What is a control variable

A

A factor that is always constant

114
Q

What is an independent variable

A

The one you change

115
Q

What is a dependent variable

A

The one you measure

116
Q

What is excretion

A

The removal of harmful waste products and products that are in excess of

Biology (4 decks)

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