Genetics Flashcards
Acinonyx
cheetah genus
Adenine
one of the bases DNA is made of, bonds with T
Alanine
amino acid with the codon GCT
Albinism
where someone’s skin has no melanin
Alfred Russel Wallace
studied beetles in South African rainforests, worked with Charles Darwin on the theory of natural selection
Allele
different forms of the same gene
Amniocentesis
involves testing a sample of cells from the amniotic fluid or placenta to test for chromosome disorders such as trisomies but may increase risk of miscarriage
Amoeba
a single-celled animal that catches food and moves about by extending fingerlike projections of protoplasm
Amphibia
amphibian class
Aneuploidy
an abnormal number of chromosomes
Animalia
animal kingdom
Annelids
phylum that involves segmented worms
Antelopus Varius
a critically endangered breed of harlequin toad once abundant in Costa Rica and Western Panama but now extinct in Costa Rica due to the fungal disease chytridiomycosis
Anura
frog order
Archaea
primitive bacteria existing in extreme environments
Arginine
amino acid with the codon CGT
Arthropod
the phylum that involves jointed legs and exoskeleton
Asexual Reproduction
where cells of the offspring are produced during mitosis from the cells of the parent
Asparagine
amino acid with the codon AAT
Aspartic Acid
amino acid with the codon GAT
Australopithecus Afarenis
the last known common ancestor between humans and chimps
Autosomes
chromosomes 1-22, which are the same in males and females
Beta Carotene
a substances that makes carrots orange and makes vitamin A, which is needed for good vision
Behavioural Features
used in taxonomy to class species, relating to how something behaves
Binary Fission
asexual reproductions with no fertilisation, where one organism splits in tow, e.g. bacterial reproduction
Binominal System
another name for taxonomy, the process for classifying organisms
Blasocyst
a group of about one hundred cells
Bone Marrow
a good source of adult stem cells
Canidae
dog family, canine
Canis
dog genus, canine
Canis Familians
binominal name for a domesticated dog
Canis Lupus
binominal name for a grey wolf
Canis Lutranus
binominal name for a coyote
Carnivora
carnivores order
Celera
a private company that attempted to sequence the entire human genome in three years at a fraction of the cost of the Human Genome Project, by skipping the mapping stage that the Human Genome Project attempted and reconstructing the fragments of the genome that went through the Sanger Method using only the overlaps
Cell Cycle
the life cycle of a cell
Interphase
the first stage of the cell cycle, where a cell copies its information
Mitosis
the second stage of the cell cycle, where the nucleus duplicates
Chordata
vertebrates phylum
Cytokinesis
the third stage of the cell cycle, where the cytoplasm and cell membrane duplicates
Channel Island Foxes
listed as critically endangered, lives on six of the Californian Channel Islands due to golden eagle predation and canine diseases such as Canine Distemper Virus (CDV)
Charles Darwin
man who came up with the theory of natural selection, whereby species best adapted to the environment survive, reproduce and pass on their desirable traits to offspring
Clone
something genetically identical to the parent
Cloning
the aim of cloning is to take control of the reproductive cycle, meaning there is no need to wait for a partner, and certain characteristics can be selected
Coding DNA
a sequence of DNA that codes for the production of a protein
Codon
three bases that code for one specific amino acid, which then create chains of proteins
Complementary Bases
describes how the chemical DNA bases pair up with each other
A with T
C with G
Cyanea Superba
a tree listed as extinct in the wild due to an epidermic on O’ahu, one of the Hawaiian Islands, competition with alien plants, habitat degradation by feral pigs, slugs and wildfire, meaning there are now only five left
Cysteine
amino acid with the codon TGT
Cystic Fibrosis
a recessive genetic disorder where osmosis does not happen, causing mucous in the body to be thick and sticky causing issues with the lungs, intestines, pancreatic duct and fertility system
Cytosine
one of the four bases DNA is made up of, bonds with G
Daughter Cell
the cell that is created
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
made up from nucleotides based on the sugar deoxyribose, bonded to a phosphate group and one of four bases
Dolly
a sheep who was the first mammal to be successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell
Dominant Allele
allele which controls the characteristic whenever it is present, shown with capital letters
Double Helix
the structure of DNA
Dupuytren’s Disease
a genetic disease that causes benign thickening of the connective tissue in someone’s hand
Embryo
a hollow ball of cells that later develops into a foetus
Embryonic Screenings
involves screening embryos made through IVF to check for genetic disorders
Endangered
where a species is at risk of no longer existing in its natural habitat due to the species being unable to reproduce as fast as they are dying out
Eocene
a geological era from 56 to 33.9 million years ago
Eugenics
the selective breeding of humans, such as when the Nazis sterilised 4000000 people and killed 70000
Evolutionary Tree
another name for Pedigree’s
Extinct
where a species no longer exists in its natural habitat because it has died out
Climate Change
climate change is particularly dangerous in the polar regions where reduction in sea ice means that animals who are adapted to living on or under sea ice may become extinct
Habitat Destruction
deforestation and destruction of coral reefs comes under this, as humans are destroying natural habitats for the benefits of resources, agriculture and urbanisation, for example, as a side effect of trawler fishing
Hunting and Fishing
human population increases has led to a higher demand of food and increase in hunting and fishing rates, animals may also be hunted for fur or ivory
Inbreeding
the formation of offspring from the breeding of closely related individuals
Introduced Species
species that are introduced to a habitat either accidentally (by hitchhiking) or intentionally (as pets or crops) may cause problems such as competition, where the new species causes natives to have to compete for resources such as food and shelter, predation, where a new species predates upon the native species and native species do not have adaptations to avoid those predators, or disease, where the new species may bring a disease which they are immune to to the new habitat, but native species are vulnerable
New Diseases
new diseases can cause species to go extinct, especially in places such as islands where animals live close together
Felidae
feline family
Felis
cat genus native to most of Africa and South Europe
Felis Concolor
binominal name for a mountain lion
Fertilisation
the fusing of a sperm and an egg
Forces of Attraction
the hydrogen bond between AT and CG
Frances Crick
a member of partnership at Cambridge University who published the double helix model
Gamete
sex cell
Gametocyte
a cell that divides to form gametes
Gene
a section of DNA, which carries coding for a particular type of protein, different genes control the development of different characteristics of an organism
Gene Theory
the theory that genes code for protein
Genetic Code
the order of the DNA bases
Genetic Engineering
when the actual genome of an organism are changed by transferring a desired gene from one organism to another
Genetic Features
used in taxonomy to class species, related to something’s genetic code
Genotype
the set of alleles that an organism possesses
George Cuvier
the first person to propose the idea of extinction
Glutamine
amino acid with the codon CAA
Glutamic Acid
amino acid with the codon GAA
Glycine
amino acid with the codon GGT
GM Crop
a crop that has been genetically modified through genetic engineering
Gregor Mendel
a monk who discovered that various genetic traits could be passed down by individuals even if they did not display those traits themselves by studying pea plants
Guanine
one of the four bases DNA is made up of, bonds with C
Haploid
where cells only have the genetic information
Hierarchical Shotgun Sequencing
the method that the Human Genome Project used to sequence the genome, which minimised risk of misassembly
Helical Turn
3.4nm
Hepatocyte
liver cell
Heterozygous
when two alleles are different
Histidine
amino acid with the codon CAT
Hominidae
ape family
Homo
human genus
Homo Erectus
the first known species humans
Homo Ergaster
an extinct species of humans
Homo Habilis
an extinct species of humans
Homologies
shared characteristics between species
Homo Sapiens
modern-day species of humans, the only species of humans that isn’t extinct
Homozygous
when two alleles are the same
Human Genome Project
project to sequence the entire human genome involving twenty different research companies over 15 years costing £3 billion in public funds. This was done by separating the human genome into small chunks of DNA approximately 150000 base pairs long that overlapped slightly at the end, the fragments were then inserted into a bacterial artificial chromosome where they are cloned and fingerprinted showing where the fragments overlap without knowing the actual sequence, using the overlapping bits as a guide, the fragments can then be put in order. These fragments were then broken up into fragments approximately 1000 base pairs long, which are then put through the Sanger process
Huntington’s Disease
inherited disease that gradually causes neurones to break down and die
Isoleucine
amino acid with the codon ATT
James Watson
member of a partnership at Cambridge University who published the double helix structure
Jean-Baptiste Lamark
a French scientist who suggested that changes in organisms by their environment were passed onto the offspring
Karyotype
image showing the 23 pairs of chromosomes
Leucine
amino acid with the codon CTT
Linear DNA
DNA arranged in strands, like in humans, unlike in bacteria, where it is arranged in loops
Linnaean System
another name for taxonomy, as it was developed by Carl Linnaeus
Lysine
amino acid with the codon AAA
Macular Degeneration
when light sensitive cells in the middle of the retina stop working, potentially could be cured by stem cells
Malathion
a type of insecticide that head lice have adapted to be resistant to
Mammalia
mammals class
Maple Syrup Urine Disease
genetic disorder where the body cannot properly break down amino acids
Mass Extinction
a period of time where extinction happens on a huge scale globally where many, or most, of the species on Earth have died out
Maternal Chromosomes
chromosomes from your mother
Maui Hersperomannia
a critically endangered shrubby tree located only on the Hawaiian Islands of Maui and O’ahu, with less than twenty-five in existence due to competition with Florida blackberry, Christmas berry, Koster’s curse and strawberry guara
Maurice Wilkins
the man who sold Rosalind Franklin’s DNA model to James Watson and Frances Crick
Merozoites
carry the malaria in the blood and the liver
Meiosis
a process similar to mitosis that only affect gametes
Methionine
amino acid with the codon ATG
Midgut Epithelium
a portion of embryo cells that form the intestines
Miocene
23 to 5 million years ago
Morphological Features
used in taxonomy to class species, related to someone’s anatomical insides
Mutation
change in the structure of a gene
Deletion
where one base is deleted, having an impact on every base after that point
Inversion Mutation
where a section of genetic code is inverted
Silent Mutation
a mutation that has no noticeable impact
Non-Coding DNA
DNA which does not code for a protein but instead controls gene expression
Nucleolus
the centre of the nucleus, where genetic information is stored
Nycticebodies
an insectivorous primate
Oligocene
period of time 33.9 million to 23 million yeras ago
Oocyst
a cyst containing a zygote formed by malaria
Ookinete
penetrates the mosquito’s stomach to form an oocyst under the outer gut lining
Origin of the Species
Charles Darwin’s book containing theories on Natural Selection
Paralysis
condition caused by damage to nerve cells, potentially could be cured by stem cells
Palaecene
period of time 66 to 56 million years ago
Panthera
genus including lions and panthers
Panthera Leo
lion’s binominal name in Latin
Paranthropus Boisei
an extinct species of humans
Parent Cell
the cell that divides
Paternal Chromosomes
chromosomes from your father
Pedigree’s
a diagram similar to a family tree that shows inheritance
Phenotype
physical appearance of a characteristic
Permethrin
a type of insecticide that head lice have adapted to become resistant to
Phenylalanine
amino acid with the codon TTT
Physiological Features
used in taxonomy to class species, related to something’s anatomical insides
Pliocene
period of time from 5 million to 2.58 million yeras ago
Polar Bear
classed as vulnerable due to climate change causing habitat loss
Polydactyly
a genetic disorders where someone has extra fingers or toes with a dominant allele
Polysomy
a condition in which an organism has at least one more chromosome than usual
Predictable Characteristic
characteristics that can be predicted using a Punnett Square
Primates
primates order
Proline
amino acid with the codon CCT
Partial Trisomy
a condition in which an organism has an extra part of a chromosome, usually the arm
Punnett Square
developed by Professor Reginald Crundall Punnett to show how likely it is that something may be inherited
Rana
a genus of frogs known as brown or pond frogs
Rana Clamitans
binominal name for green frog
Ranidae
frog family with Eurasian or Indian origins
Recessive Allele
allele whose characteristics only show up when it is present on both chromosomes
Taking Cuttings
a quick and cheap way of reproducing plants with clones
Tissue Culture
produces offspring using small groups of cells from a plant
Trisomy
where an organism has three copies of a chromosome instead of two
Trisomy 1
a condition which almost always ends in miscarriage, as there has only been one recorded surviving case of this in history
Trisomy 2
a condition which almost always ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, causes severe health problems such as growth and motor delay, intellectual disability, congenital heart defects, neural tube defects, deafness, clubfoot, rocker-bottom feet and face and body asymmetry
Trisomy 3
a condition which almost always ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, causes severe health problems such as skeletal abnormalities, ectodermal dysplasia, stomach issues, but normal intelligence
Trisomy 4
a condition which almost always ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, causes severe health problems such as skeletal abnormalities, feeding and breathing difficulties, craniofacial abnormalities, abnormalities of the hands and feet, genital abnormalities and heart defects and severe intellectual disability
Trisomy 5
a condition which almost always ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, causes severe health problems such as polyhydramnious, esophageal atresia, respiratory distress, hypotonia, fontanels, delayed growth, hypertonia, craniofacial abnormalities, hydrocephalus, cardiac malformations, hearing difficulties, clubfeet and shortened femurs
Trisomy 6
a condition which sometimes causes no problems, but may cause problems such as slow growth, craniofacial abnormalities, intellectual disabilities, an unusually short webbed neck and abnormal joint issues
Trisomy 7
a condition which often causes body asymmetry, abnormally shaped ears, micrognathia, genital abnormalities and many other symptoms similar to Silver-Russel syndrome
Trisomy 8
a conditions which often ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, people often survive into adulthood, with symptoms such as abnormal stature, intellectual disabilities, musculoskeletal and eye abnormalities
Trisomy 9
a condition which often ends in miscarriage or death within the first twenty days of life, but those who do survive often exhibit symptoms such as developmental delay, skull and nervous system problems, micrognathia, low-set ears, overlapping fingers, limited hip abduction, rocker bottom feet, heart murmurs and webbed neck
Trisomy 10
a condition which causes symptoms such as intellectual disability, digestive issues, heart and kidneys issues and craniofacial abnormalities
Trisomy 11
a condition which causes symptoms such as intellectual disability, poor muscle tone and facial abnormalities, although most people with trisomy 11 live full lives with normal lifespan
Trisomy 12
a condition which often ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, people often exhibit symptoms such as macrocephaly, poor muscle tones, intellectual disability, facial abnormalities and developmental delays
Trisomy 13
Patau’s Syndrome
a condition which often ends in miscarriage, stillbirth, or death in infancy, but when it doesn’t, it can cause symptoms such as craniofacial disorders, problem with the development of the nasal passage, haemanigiomas, microcephaly, deafness, genital defects, kidney problems and abnormal wall defects
Trisomy 14
a condition which causes symptoms such as growth restriction, intellectual disability, developmental disability, facial abnormalities and congenital abnormalities
Trisomy 15
a condition which often ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, it can cause symptoms such as growth restriction, congenital heart defects, genital abnormalities and craniofacial abnormalities
Trisomy 16
a condition which often ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, it can cause symptoms such as spina bifida, congenital heart defects and genital defects
Trisomy 17
a condition which almost always ends with miscarriage, as there have been no recorded cases of it
Trisomy 18
Edward’s Syndrome
a condition which often ends in miscarriage, stillbirth or death in infancy, so treatment is almost always refused as it is described as ‘incompatible with life’, and may cause symptoms such as heart, respiratory, kidney and gastrointestinal problems
Trisomy 19
a condition which almost always ends in miscarriage, as there have only been two recorded cases
Trisomy 20
a condition which almost always ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, it can cause symptoms such as spinal abnormalities, gastrointestinal issues, low muscle tone, and significant learning disabilities
Trisomy 21
Down’s Syndrome
causes symptoms such as learning disabilities, stunted growth, low muscle tone and craniofacial abnormalities, congenital heart defects, vision and hearing defects, and issues with the immune system, although most people with Down’s syndrome live full lives
Trisomy 22
a condition which often ends in miscarriage, but when it doesn’t, it can cause symptoms such as congenital heart defects, intellectual disabilities, asymmetric body development, kidney malformations, genital defects and hearing problem
Tetrasomy
where an organism has four copies of a chromosome instead of two
Pentasomy
where an organism has five copies of a chromosome instead of two
Hexasomy
where an organism has six copies of a chromosome instead of two
Heptasomy
where an organism has seven copies of an chromosome instead of two
Octosomy
where an organism has eight copies of a chromosome instead of two
Nanosomy
where an organism has nine copies of a chromosome instead of two
Decasomy
where an organism has ten copies of a chromosome instead of two
Proline
amino acid with the codon CCT
Protoplasm
a mixture of small molecules such as ions, amino acid, proteins, lipids and other molecules
Pseudopodia
a temporary protrusion of the cytoplasm of a cell, such as an amoeba or a white blood cell, that takes up food or other particulate matter
Ring Stage
the first stage in the cycle where malaria infects the blood
Rosalind Franklin
the woman who discovered the double helix model by using x-rays
Sanger Process
a technology where each gene is sequenced base letter by base letter
Schizont Stage
the third stage in the cycle where malaria infects the blood
Serine
amino acid with the codon TCT
Sex Chromosomes
chromosomes 23, which are different in male sand females, with two X chromosomes in a girl and an X and a Y in males; this is decided by the sperm
Specialised Cells
cells adapted to do a certain job
Speciation
where species are split due to environmental, physical or behavioural barriers, meaning there is no interaction between the two, so the two separate groups then adapt to their different environments, until they become so different that they cannot produce fertile offspring, and so become two separate species
Species
a group of organisms which share similar characteristics and which breed together to produce fertile offspring
Spinal Muscular Atrophy
genetic disorder that causes the loss of motor neurones and muscles to gradually waste away
Sporozoites
multiple oocysts caused by malaria
Stem Cells
unspecialised cells which can divide to make specialised cells
Adult Stem Cells
an undifferentiated cell of an organism that can give rise to many more cells of the same type, but not all
Embryonic Stem Cells
the inner cells of the embryo that differentiate to form all types of specialised cells
Umbilical Stage Cells
contains a large supply of high-quality stem cells, which, although they can make more cells than adult stem cells, they cannot make as many as embryonic stem cells, and this is only available to rich people who can afford to freeze umbilical cords
Sumatran Oranguatan
listed as critically endangered due to an epidemic on the island Sumatra in Indonesia, threatened by logging, conversion of forest to agricultural land, oil and palm plantations, and fragmentations of roads
Sugar-Phosphate Base
bases come off of this
Taxonomy
placing organisms into groups based on their shared features, also known as classification
Tay-Sachs Disease
a genetic disorder that results in the destruction of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord
Telestes Polylepis
a critically endangered freshwater fish only found in the Stauicka Janga stream in Croatia, numbers declining due to habitat degradation caused by water extraction and the presence of introduced trout fish
Three-Domain System
method of classification in which organisms are categorised into
three groups; Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryota, developed by Carl Woese
Threonine
amino acid with the codon ACT
Thymine
one of the four bases that makes up DNA, bonds with A
Tryptophan
amino acid with the codon TGG
Tyrosine
amino acid with the codon TAT
Valine
amino acid with the codon GTT
Variation
the differences between members of the same species
Environmental Variation
variations influenced by the outside environment
Genetic Variation
variations influenced by genetics, such as hair colour, eye colour, blood group and some genetic diseases
Western Gorilla
listed as critically endangered due to hunting and deaths caused by Ebola
Whole Genome Shotgun Sequencing
the method of genome sequencing that Celera used, which skipped the mapping stage entirely and just divided the genome into small fragments which then went straight into the Sanger Method
Zygote
the original cell formed when an egg and sperm fuse, that later develops into an embryo
Speciation
where species are split due to environmental, physical or behavioural barriers, meaning there is no interaction between the two, so the two separate groups then adapt to their different environments, until they become so different that they cannot produce fertile offspring, and so become two separate species
