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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What is sex?

A

The biological status as male or female determined by chromosomes, then hormones which create differences in anatomy.

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2
Q

What is gender?

A

A person’s PSYCHOSOCIAL status as masculine or feminine. Including the attitudes, roles and behaviours we associate to being male or female. .

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3
Q

What is the term used to describe:
- when biological sex does not match the gender the person identifies as.
- when someone is born with both male and female sex organs
- the surgery to change someone’s physical sex/gender

A

Gender Dysphoria

Intersex

Gender reassignment surgery

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4
Q

What are sex role stereotypes?

give examples

A

A set of expectations that people within society or culture hold about what is acceptable or usual behaviour for males and females.

Males: obsessed with sex, breadwinner of the family, hates shopping
Females: Carer of the family, good at cooking, shy

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5
Q

Evaluate sex role stereotypes. (2+, 1-)

A

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - if learned environmentally, stereotyping could be addressed by providing learning experiences for children - presenting sex roles equally.

+ RESEARCH EVIDENCE - mothers choose more masculine toys to play with children who were presented as ‘boys’ and encouraged more motor movement. - Mothers treat children differently according to their sex role stereotypes.

  • Categorising behaviours, occupations or qualities as masculine or feminine may place RESTRICTIVE BARRIERS ON POSITIVE ROLES people could play in society.
    e.g. males working in nurseries (only 3%) or females in science. Changing stereotypes could lead to a better society.
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6
Q

What is androgyny?

What did Bem believe?

A

A personality type (created by Bem) that has a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics.

Bem believed it was more healthy to avoid fixed sex roles and that androgynous people are better equipped to deal with a range of situations by adopting a variety of behaviours.

Stifling true personality (e.g. man wanting to be gentle) could lead to mental illness.

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7
Q

How can androgyny be measured?

A

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
- developed by giving 200 characteristics to 100 judges to rate how desirable each trait was for males and females. 20 highest ranking masc, fem and neutral terms included in inventory.

e.g. M = aggressive, competitive
F = gentle, sympathetic
N = helpful, happy

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8
Q

Evaluate Androgyny and BSRI

A

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS- encouraging parents to raise children free of sex-stereotypes leading to healthy development
H: many people feel strongly about same-sex stereotypes leading to healthy development - otherwise child abuse.

+ EVIDENCE to support claims on mental health: Tested 100 married females in India on fem/masc and range of factors - e.g. health, depression, stress etc. Females with high masc scores had lower depression etc scores. Most androgynous = healthiest. Androgyny has a psychoprotective effect.

  • Questionnaire - SELF-REPORTED: gender = hypothetical construct - subjective. 7 point rating scale interpretation may differ. Social desirability bias. Lacks internal validity.
  • TEMPORAL VALIDITY and potential CULTURAL BIAS of questionnaire criticised: BRRI developed over 40 years ago and acceptable gender behaviours has changed. All judges from US - western culture.
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9
Q

How is gender/sex determined by chromosomes?

A

The Y chromosome carries a gene called the Sex Determining Region Y (SRY).

These produce androgens like dihydrotestosterone which causes the foetus to develop into a boy. Otherwise the foetus develops into a female.

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10
Q

What organs and hormones do XX and XY chromosomes develop?

A

XY -> androgens -> testes -> testosterone -> sex organ development and masculinising of the brain.

XX -> ovaries -> oestrogen -> female sex organs and feminising of the brain

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11
Q

How do hormones affect sex development?

A

In womb, hormones act upon brain development and development of reproductive organs.

At puberty, burst of hormones triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics.

M and F produce same hormones but in differing amounts.

Some XY babies have an insensitivity to hormones and develop initially as female. Male organs develop at puberty.

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12
Q

TESTOSTERONE:
- what gland is it produced from?
- physical and behavioural effects?
- what can decreased levels lead to?
- supporting research?

A

Gonads at 8 weeks and testes

  • male sex organs and puberty
  • competitiveness and aggression

Decreased testosterone levels -> increased depression

RESEARCH: rats injected with testosterone more aggressive.

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13
Q

OESTROGEN
- what gland is it produced from?
- physical and behavioural effects?
- what has it been blamed for?

A

Gonads and Ovaries

  • mensturation and sex organs
  • irratibility and emotionality

Some cases have have blamed oestrogen for anti-social behaviour e.g. shoplifting and murder

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14
Q

OXYTOCIN
- what gland is it produced from?
- physical and behavioural effects?

A

Pituitary gland
- stimulates lactation, decreases cortisol, particularly high after birth
- promotes feelings of bonding

Both sexes produce oxytocin during amorous activities. Overall women produce it more.

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15
Q

Evaluate the biological approach to gender.

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH: prison population offenders with the highest tesosterone levels were most likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. H: Correlation not causation.

+ CASE STUDY: David Reimer - boy lost penis when infant. Raised as a girl. Showed more masculine characteristics than feminine. When discovered his true sex, had no problem changing to male.

  • CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE: double blind study - males given testosterone or placebo. No significant differences found after 10 weeks. Effect of social expectations on behaviour greater than hormones - not a simple hormone-behaviour relationship.
  • REDUCTIONIST: too much focus on nature, not nurture - role models, societal expectations - incomplete explanation
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16
Q

What are the 2 syndromes (due to chromosomal differences) you need to know?

A

Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome

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17
Q

Describe Klinefelter’s Syndrome.

A

XXY - 1 in 500-1000 males.

PHYSICAL
- reduced body hair
- underdeveloped genitals
- softening of body contours…

PSYCHOLOGICAL
- poorly developed language, reading and memory skills
- shy
- lack of interest in sexual activity

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18
Q

Describe Turner’s Syndrome.

A

XO - 1 in 2000 females.

PHYSICAL
- do not have functioning ovaries so no mentrual cycle - amenhorrhea
- no breast development at puberty
- ‘webbed neck’ and high hip to waist ratio

PHSYCHOLOGICAL
- higher than average reading ability
- low spatial, memory and maths performance
- socially immature - difficulty fitting in

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19
Q

How are Turner’s and Klinefelter’s Syndrome treated?

A

TURNER’S
- Oestrogen replacement therapy usually started at puberty
- Growth hormone injections - also used with progesterone to stimulate mentrual cycle to keep womb healthy

KLINEFELTER’S
- testosterone replacement therapy
- fertility treatment

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20
Q

Evaluate Klinefelter’s and Turner’s syndromes

A

+ They CONTRIBUTE TO OUR UNDERSTANDING of nature-nurture development of gender.
e.g. Klinefelter’s - shyness - biological basis related to chromosomes. Our innate nature influences can affect psychology and behaviour. H: not causal - could be environmental.

+ Research into these syndromes has PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS.
e.g. found that people with Klinefelter’s who had been identified and treated early had significant benefits - earlier diagnosis helps people

  • DIFFICULTIES GENERALISING -atypical gender development - low pop validity - may not apply to majority of people with typical gender development.
  • Nature-nurture debate is BASED ON THE IDEA THAT THERE ARE TYPICAL GENDER BEHAVIOURS - may be based on stereotypes of what is ‘normal’ rather than fact.
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21
Q

Describe the SLT explanation of gender.

A

Gender development is when children observe and immitate same-sex role models - including their parents - thus LEARNING their gender. This way, gender identity typically follows sex-identity.

DIRECT REINFORCEMENT - child rewarded for gender-typical behaviour so repeats it.

INDIRECT REINFORCEMENT - child witnesses someone else rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviour and then imitate to get the same reward.

IDENTIFICATION with role model - same sex, age, likeable, higher status e.g. older siblings and parents

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES

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22
Q

What does Bandura mean by Self Direction?

A

Children are not only shaped by their environment but they can direct themselves.

Once a child has internalised their gender appropriate behaviour, their own behaviour is not dependent on external rewards - element of free will.

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23
Q

Evaluate the SLT as an explanation for gender.

A

+ SUPPORTING EVIDENCE: Children shown role models choosing either apple of banana. Children chose the same fruit as their same sex role model.

+ CAN EXPLAIN CHANGING GENDER ROLES in society over time. Androgyny more acceptable now. Shift in cultural norms over last 100 years. New types of gender behaviour modelled and reinforced. Biology is an unlikely explanation.

  • REDUCTIONIST - focuses too much on nurture - does not take biological factors into account - not complex or complete explanation. BIOLOGICAL SUPPORTING EVIDENCE: what men and women look for in a partner is largely the same cross-culturally.
  • LACK OF EXPLANATION FOR CERTAIN ASPECTS OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT. e.g. reproduction - limited by younger age - so not reinforced. Does not take age and maturation into account. L: Cannot explain why 2 same-sex siblings develop different gendered behaviour (e.g. 1 more masc than the other) even though have same role models.
24
Q

What is Kohlberg’s Cognitive Explanation of Gender?

A

Considers the development of our thought patterns and cognitions. Children’s understanding of gender roles, attitudes and behaviours become more sophisticated with age as we biologically and cognitively mature.

1 Gender Identity 2 Gender Stability 3 Gender Consistency

Once children discover and understand their gender (stage 3) they actively seek out role models to identifty with. Only when they seek role models do they learn gender appropriate behaviour.

25
Q

Describe Kohlberg’s ‘Gender Identity’ Stage

A

Age of 2 - can identify if girl or boy
Age of 3 - can identify other people’s gender.

However understanding is limited to external appearence.
They are not aware that sex is permanent across time and situations.

26
Q

Describe Kohlberg’s ‘Gender Stability’ Stage.

A

Age of 4 - realise gender is consistent over time.

However do not think gender is consistent over different situations for others. Perception of other people’s gender still dominated by external appearance.

They believe people change gender if they do activities or wear clothes typically associated to a particular gender.

27
Q

Describe Kohlberg’s ‘Gender Consistency’ Stage.

A

Age of 6 - recognise that gender remains constant and consistant across time and situations - in themselves and others.

No longer affected by external appearance. Start to learn gender appropriate behaviours.

28
Q

Why is Kohlberg’s Cognitive Explanation for Gender different to the Psychodynamic and SLT explanations?

How is it similar to the biological approach?

A

Psychodynamic - gender identity comes AFTER identification with role model.

SLT - sees children as passive observers of role models at any age.

Biological - sees progress through stages due to biological maturation - heavily influenced by changes to the brain and cognitive capacity.

29
Q

Evaluate Kohlberg’s Explanation of Gender Development.

A

+ EVIDENCE - 76% of 2 year olds and 90% of 3 year olds labelled their own gender - supports gender identity occurs developmentally and that accuracy increases with age. H: not 100%.

+ MORE EVIDENCE - children under the age of 5 judged a doll who had visible male genitals but was wearing a dress as female - supports gender stability judging gender by external appearance.

  • QUESTIONABLE TEMPORAL VALIDITY - evidence that age of gender constancy is younger today - internet, social media etc - low temporal validity
  • ISSUES WITH THE WAY KOHLBERG ASSESSED CHILDREN - Kohlberg’s theory was developed using interviews with young children - limited vocabulary to express their understanding - may have complex understanding but just could not express it.
30
Q

What are the two parts of the Cognitive Developmental Theory called?

A

Kohlberg’s Cognitive Explanation for gender and Gender Schema Theory

31
Q

How is Gender Schema Theory different to Kohlberg’s Explanation?

A

Kohlberg thought that children don’t seek out gender role models until gender constancy (age 6).

But GST believes that children aquire gender relevant information when they can label their gender (gender identity stage).

32
Q

How is Gender Schema Theory similar to Kohlberg’s Explanation?

A

Halverson and Martin, like Kohlberg believed that children learn gender by structuring their own learning (rather than passively observing and imitating role models - SLT).

33
Q

Describe Gender Schema Theory.

A

Children learn gender appropriate behaviour through schemas (mental frameworks).
Schemas focus on things which help us to confirm our pre-existing ideas, often leading to stereotypes.
They lead to children holding fixed gender attitudes.
Schemas become more complex over time.

1) GENDER SCHEMAS AFTER IDENTITY
- once a child has gender identity (2-3) they begin to search their environment for info about their gender schema and ignore toys, games etc that do not relate to their group.
2) GENDER SCHEMA DETERMINES BEHAVIOUR
3) INGROUP SCHEMA REMEMERED BETTER
Info that doesn’t fit into a schema is ignored and so schemas are rarely altered and having enduring effects of our perception of our world.

Children have a better and more positive understanding of schemas associated with their ingroup (thought to boost self-esteem).

At age of 8 children start to pay attention to elaborate schemas of both genders.

34
Q

Evaluate Gender Schema Theory

A

+ EVIDENCE - Children <6 were more likely to remember gender consistent behaviour in photos tested a week later. Info outside of their schema was ignored or misremembered e.g. switching genders to fit their schema for the behaviour shown.

+ EXPLANITARY POWER - can explain many aspects of children’s thinking about gender, e.g. inflexible gender attitudes and strong ingroup bias - children pay more attention to info that fits their schemas.

  • OVEREMPHASISES THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL - does not focus enough on other important factors e.g. social factors - parenting - rewards and punishment for gender behaviour - incomplete and oversimplified - reductionist.
  • CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE - 3-year olds reacted in gender stereotypical ways to peer’s behaviour that didn’t conform to their gender, even though the children hadn’t yet attained gender identity (let alone gender constancy).
35
Q

Describe the Psychodynamic explanation of Gender

A

Freud believed that:
- Children pass through 5 psychosexual stages.
- Gender development in the Phallic stage (age 3-6) due to libido focus on genitals.
- Prior to this stage chidren had no concept of gender identity. Freud called them bisexual (neither masculine or feminine).
- Gender identity develops due to resolution of the oedipus/electra complex.

IDENTIFICATION - a desire to be associated with a particular person or group due to their desirable characteristics - e.g. children both identify with same sex parent to resolve their complex.

Freud thought identification for girls was less strong because there was less reason to identify with a woman - e.g. lower status etc.

INTERNALISATION - individual adopts attitudes and behaviours of another person. e.g. child taking on (internalising) gender identity and behaviours of the same sex parent.

36
Q

Describe Freud’s case study of Little Hans

A

5 year old with fear of being bitten by a horse which stemmed from a horse collapsing and dying in front of him.

Freud thought that Hans developed gender identity through oedipus complex and that Hans identified the horse with his father and his fear of horses was due to castration anxiety displaced onto horses (defence mechanism).

37
Q

Describe the Oedipus complex.

A

Boy sexually desires his mother.

Boy sees father as a rival for his mother and fears that his father will castrate him if he find out about his desires towards his mother (Castration Anxiety).

To resolve the conflict, boy identifies with his father and displaces feelings towards his mother onto other women.

38
Q

Describe the Electra Complex.

A

Girls notice they don’t have a penis and begin to sexually desire their father (penis envy).

They believe their mothers have castrated them and see them as a rival.

To resolve this conflict they identify with their mother in order to have their father and eventually substitute penis envy for the desire to have children.

39
Q

Evaluate the Psychodynamic explanation of Gender development.

A

+ CASE STUDY - Little Hans - supports oedipus complex

+ RESEARCH EVIDENCE - 22/32 mental patients appeared to be suffering with an unresolved Electra complex and 12 had regressed to earlier stages of development. Supports electra complex - unresolved = mental health issues. H: Subjective, Unfalsifiable

  • LACK OF SCIENTIFIC RIGOUR - Unconscious complexes - unfalsifiable - lack of empirical evidece - H: Freud’s theory similar to Gender Schema Theory -e.g. similar age of aquiring gender identity and ingroup attitudes being preferred
  • CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE - household with homosexual or single parents develop much in the same way as heterosexual parent households - would expect children from non-nuclear families to have difficulties forming gender identity L: lacks predictive validity - not supported through actual empirical evidence
40
Q

What is culture?

A

The rules, morals, customs and practices that bind a group of people together.

41
Q

Describe research into cultural differences for gender roles.

A

Tribal groups of New Guinea studied:
- in one tribe men were passive and decorative, women were dominant leaders
- in another tribe, both men and women were aggressive and hostile
- and in another tribe both men and women were gentle and responsive

Suggests gender roles are different cross culturally - supporting nurture.
However possible researcher bias as tribal people could’ve told researcher what they wanted to hear.

42
Q

Describe research into cultural similarities for gender roles?

A

Consistent patters found in mate preference in 37 countries woldwide - e.g. women sought men that could offer wealth and resources and men sought attractive young partners.

Supports that gender roles/mate preferences are biological (nature).

43
Q

What are the limitations of research into culture on gender roles.

A
  • IMPOSED ETIC - when researchers use research methods and measuring tools relevant and applicable to their own culture. Issues because could be hard to apply to other cultures and can lead to faulty conclusions/interpretations of behaviour.

Can be avoided by including at least one member of the local population into the research team - enabling local customs and traditions to be respected and any needed changes to measuring tools.

  • VERY DIFFICULT TO CONCLUDE NATURE VS NURTURE from any research. - it is most likely an interaction of the two that produces gender roles - no amount of cross-cultural influence can completely rule out influence of the environment.
44
Q

What is the influence of the media on gender roles?

A

The media provides role models with whom children can identify with and immitate - more likely those of same sex, high status, likeable etc.

The media provides clear gender stereotypes -e.g. men are independent, ambitious and advice givers. women are dependent, unambitious and emotional.
Men are often portrayed in occupational roles and women in domestic familial roles

Media also shows the outcomes of performing behaviours - vicarious reinforcement. Seeing others succeed increases self-efficacy.

45
Q

Evaluate influence of media on gender roles. (2+, 1-)

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH - children who watched more than 25 hours of media per week held more sex-stereotyped perceptions than those who watched less than 10 hours per week.

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - program makers could be encouraged to alter stereotypical attitudes and behaviours shown. H: research shows that some male adolescents develop even stronger stereotypes after watching counter-stereotype material.

  • METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES - lack of control comparisons as media use is so widespread - lack of validity and difficult to draw conclusions. Media could just reflect norms, not be the cause of norms. H: not impossible - tribal and very isolated groups, but low pop validity.
46
Q

Describe Gender Dysphoria.

A

A condition where individuals experience an incogruence between their biological sex and gender they ‘feel’ they are.

GD affects male more than females and estimated 1 in 4000 receive treatment for the condition.

Early indications include: children unhappy wearing clothes of their bio sex or playing with gender appropriate toys.

Many GD individuals identify as transgender and may opt for gender reassignment surgery.

47
Q

How is Gender Dysphoria diagnosed?

A

DSM-5:
- feel a strong sense of discomfort with their own biological sex
- must experience ongoing identification with the opposite sex
- experience will affect ability to function in everyday life.
- not related to a physical intersex condition (e.g. klinefelter’s)

48
Q

What abnormality definitions apply to gender dysphoria?

A

Statistical Infrequence - 1 in 4000 - <2%

Deviation from social norms - classed as ‘atypical’ gender development

49
Q

Name the 3 biological and 2 Social-Psychological explanations for Gender Dysphoria

A

Biological: Genetics, Brain Sex Theory, Cross Wiring
Social-psychological: Psychodynamic and Cognitive

50
Q

What is the research into genetics leading to GD?

A

Research:
Examining genetics of M to F transgender individuals - difference found in Angrogen Receptor Gene compared to controls.
Effect would be a reduction of the male sex hormone testosterone which could make the brain less masculinised.

TWIN STUDIES:
MZ: 39%, DZ 0% (however small sample available).

51
Q

Describe the Brain Sex Theory. (+ Research)

A

Gender Identity is encoded in the brain during foetal development due to hormones.

One area investigated is the BED NUCLEAUS OF THE STRIA TERMINALIS (BSTc) which is located near the thalamus.

This area is larger in men than women and has been found that size tends to reflect preferred sex rather than biological sex.

Post Mortem Studies: found that in M to F transgender individuals the BST is smaller than normal - gender identity may be hardwired biologically.

52
Q

Describe Cross Wiring as an explanation for GD. (+Research)

A

Argued that GD is a form of Phantom Limb Syndrome.

The image of sex organs is innately hardwired into the brain and so sometimes biological females feel that they should have a penis (due to their brain being cross-wired due to plasticity).

Research: 2/3rds of female to male transsexuals report the feeling of having a penis.

53
Q

What is the psychodynamic explanation for GD?

A

MALE TO FEMALE TRANSGERERISM
- possibly caused by separation anxiety from mother before gender identity can form.
- child fantasises of a ‘symbiotic fusion’ with their mothers to relieve the anxiety.
- consequence is that child becomes the mother and adopts a female gender identity.

Alternatively, Recker links GD in boys to an absence of a father figure.

FEMALE TO MALE TRANSGENDERISM
- caused by paternal rejection in early childhood
- unconsciously become males in order to gain acceptance from father

54
Q

What is the cognitive explanation for GD?

A

An extension of Gender Schema Theory.

A child’s personal interests may affect the gender schema and then eventually gender identity.

e.g. a boy who plays with dolls comes to believe that playing with dolls is for boys, leading to an atypical gender schema.

In most people this leads to androgynous behaviour, in some though it can lead to the formation of an oppositve gender identity.

55
Q

What is the supporting research for the psychodynamic explanation for GD?

What are limitations of biological and psychodynamic explanations (+ one more)?

A

PSYCODYNAMIC:
- out of 36 gender disturbed boys, 75% had no father figure.
- 64% of GD boys were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder.

(Supporting research for other explanations mentioned in previous flashcards)

LIMITATIONS
- Psychodynamic - unfalsifiable - unconscious - unscientific
- Biological - reductionist - overly simplified - incomplete explanation

  • Socially sensitive - blame on parents

Psychology (17 decks)

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