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Forensics Flashcards

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1
Q

Name the Biological and Psychological Explanations of Crime.

A

BIOLOGICAL
- Atavistic form (Historical explanation)
- Neural Explanations
- Genetic Explanations
- Eysenck’s Theory

PSYCHOLOGICAL
- Eysenck’s Theory
- Cognitive Explanations
- Differential Association Theory
- Psychodynamic Explanations

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2
Q

What did Lombroso argue?

A

Criminals are ‘genetic throwbacks’ - a primitive sub-species who are biologically less evolved.
Their savage nature meant they were unable to live normally in everyday society and so inevitably turned to crime.

Criminals are identified by physiological markers. Characteristics indicate specific types of criminals.

Murderers:
- bloodshot eyes
- strong jaws
- curly hair

Sexual Deviants:
- glinting eyes
- thick lips
- large ears

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3
Q

What was Lombroso’s research?

A

1876
Studied 400 dead and 4000 living italian criminals and found a number of physical features which indicate criminaltity.

Concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics.

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4
Q

Evaluate Lombroso’s Atavistic Form explanation

A

+ Supporting research - italian criminals

+ Contribution to crimonology - ‘father of criminology’. He shifted crime research from a moralistic discourse towards a more scientific and credible realm. His theory led to criminal profiling.

  • Scientific racism - many features identified as criminal and atavistic were more likely found among people of African descent e.g. dark skin, curly hair. Supported the unpopular Eugenics movement (‘unfit’ should be eliminated to allow ‘fit’ to populate).
  • Contradictory evidence: 3000 criminals vs 3000 non-criminals - no difference found in physical characteristics. L: Lombroso’s research had no control group so less valid.
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5
Q

Describe the genetic explanation for crime.

A

Crime is caused by a criminal gene inherited from biological parents.

  • MAOA-L (mutation of MAOA gene) - controls amount of dopamine and serotonin. Linked to aggression.
  • CDH13 also linked to criminal behaviour.

People with both genes 13x more likely to have a history of violence.

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6
Q

Evaluate the genetic explanation for crime.

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH: longitudinal study (from birth to adulthood) - individuals who carried MAOA-L gene more likely to indulge in anti-social behaviour such as violent crime. H: effect was greatest on those who had been mistreated as children - Diathesis stress / SLT.

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Intervention and support - decreasing stress (diathesis stress). Reduce crime rates.

  • DETERMINISTIC - no free will - issues with punishing criminals
  • ETHICS - screening - abortions based on singular gene possession? L: socially sensitive - stigmatised, not all with gene are criminal.
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7
Q

What is APD?

A

Antisocial Personality Disorder - commonly known as psychopathy.

Associated with a lack of empathy and showing no remorse. They are often impulsive, manipulative and self-centred.

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8
Q

Describe the Neural Explanations of Offending.

A

There are differences in the brain of criminal and non-criminals - much research focused on APD.

1) BRAIN IMAGING studies show violent offenders (with APD) have abnormal activity in the prefrontal coretex, which regulates emotional and impulsive behaviour.
Abnormal activity may be linked to neurotransmitter levels. Low levels of SEROTONIN can be linked with aggressiveness. Very high or low levels of NORADRENALINE associated with fight or flight response.

2) APD may be caused by damage to the AMYGDALA, known to be involved in empathy. It regulate emotions and is part of the limbic system which is key to processing strong emotions e.g. pleasure, fear and aggression.

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9
Q

Evaluate the Nerual explanations of offending (2+, 1-)

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH - criminal psychopaths to non-psychopaths - damage found to amygdala of psychopaths compared to controls. H: causation or symptom?

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - Parole decisions - deciding if someone should be released or not based on neurological factors - reducing crime committed. H: ethical issues- judging people who have not committed crime

  • DETERMINISTIC - no free will - difficulty deciding punishment for criminals
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10
Q

Describe Eysenck’s explanation for offending.

A

Behaviour can be represented along dimension:
- Introversion vs Extroversion (E)
- Neuroticism vs Stability (N)
- Eysenck later added Psychoticism (P)

Measured through EPI questionnaire (Eysenck Personality Inventory).

Criminal Personality = High extroversion, neuroticism and Psychoticism

Criminal Personality Theory - our personality has a biological basis.

Role of Socialisation:
- Criminality linked with personality via a socialisation process.
- Eysenck saw criminals as developmentally immature, selfish and concerned with immediate gratification.
- Usually children are socialised to delay gratification but people with high N and E have nervous systems which are difficult to condition to avoid anti-social behaviour.

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11
Q

Describe in more detail the Criminal Personality Theory.

A

Our personality has a biological basis.

EXTROVERTS - underactive nervous system - so constantly seek stimulation and engage in risk taking.

NEUROTICISM - nervous/over anxious - behaviour difficult to predict. Have an Autonomic NS that responds quickly to stress.

PSYCHOTISM - cold, unemotional, prone to aggression. Linked with testosterone.

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12
Q

Evaluate Eysenck’s explanation for offending.

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH - 2000 male prisoners EPI scores compared to 2000 controls. Prisoners scored higher on neuroticism, psychoticism and extraversion. H: correlation, not causation

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - Helps us to spot criminals/potential criminals. Socialising children.

  • DETERMINISTIC - fixed personality -biological - no free will. Personalities can change over time - too simplistic - not everyone is the same.
  • VALDITY OF QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONED - self-report - social desirability bias - reducing internal validity. H: countered by use of a lie scale - indicating validity of results.
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13
Q

What are the two parts of the Cognitive explanations of offending?

A

Cognitive Distortion and Levels of Moral Reasoning

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14
Q

Describe Cognitive Distortions.

A

A form of irrational thinking where a person has a bias/error in processing information. Reality is twisted so what is perceived is no longer the truth.

HOSTILE ATTRIBUTION BIAS
- person perceives actions of others as a negative reaction - misreading action of others.
- this triggers a disproportionate response
- roots of this are thought to be from childhood

MINIMALISATION: Downplaying the seriousness of an offence.
- trivialising crime (make it little/irrelevant)
- blaming the victim
- rationalising what they did
This reduces negative interpretations and justifies their behaviour.

Studies show that those who commit sexual offences are most prone to minimalisation.

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15
Q

Evaluate Cognitive Distortions (2+)

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH - presented violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions - compared to controls. Violent offenders more likely to see the faces as hostile and angry.

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATION - CBT therapies - reduce minimalism and hostile attribution bias - reducing risk of reoffending. L: research: CBT reduce cognitive distortions and attendees had a 44% reduction in arrests compared to control group. H: didn’t reduce 56%.

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16
Q

Describe Levels of Moral reasoning.

A

Kohlberg interviewed males about reasons for their moral decisions. He found support for stages of moral development.

Progress through stages as a result of biological maturity and discussing thinking with others.

LEVELS
1) Pre-conventional Morality
2) Conventional Morality
3) Post-conventional Morality

Only I Get to Make Singing Umbrellas

Kohlberg found a violent group of youths were lower in moral reasoning than a non-violent group.
Crime could be caused by having a low level or moral reasoning.

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17
Q

Describe Kohlberg’s Pre-conventional Morality level.

A

Level:
- we don’t have a personal code of morality
- code is shaped by standards of adults and consequences of following/breaking rules

Stages:
1) Obedience and Punishment Orientation - child is good to avoid punishment.

2) Individualism and Exchange - will do something if has personal gain. Recognises not just one right view from authorities.

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18
Q

Describe Kohlberg’s Conventional Morality level.

A

Level:
- we internalise moral standards of adult role models
- reasoning based on norms of group

Stages:
3) Good Interpersonal Relationships - individual is good to be seen as good by others - seeking approval.

4) Maintaining Social Order - becomes aware of wider society rules and obeys rules to uphold the law.

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19
Q

Describe Kohlberg’s Post-conventional Morality level.

A

Level:
- judgement based on self-chosen principles.
- reasoning based on individual rights and justice.
- 10-15% get to this level

Stages:
5) Social Contract and Individual Rights - becomes aware that rules, while good, are not always clear cut.

6) Universal Principles - develops own set of moral guidelines - may or may not fit the law - these principles apply to all.

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20
Q

Evaluate the Levels of moral reasoning. (1+, 1-)

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH - questionnaire assessed the moral thinking of young offenders. Found that 40% did not consider consequences of their actions - offenders had a low level of moral reasoning. H: 60% did consider consequences.

  • GENDER BIAS - Kohlberg only interviewed males to develop his levels of moral reasoning. Cannot be generalised to all people. Low pop validity. H: stages found to be universal across other cultures so not culturally biased - supports biological process.
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21
Q

What are the two psychodynamic explanations for offending?

A

Inadequate Superego and Maternal Deprivation

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22
Q

Describe the Inadequate Superego.

A

Crime is determined by an Individual’s unconscious - not their free will.
Caused by a dysfunctional superego, produced from abnormal relationships with parents during childhood.

WEAK SUPEREGO

HARSH SUPEREGO

DEVIANT SUPEREGO

23
Q

Describe the Weak superego

A

WEAK SUPEREGO
- Develops because child has not identified with their same sex parent/parent was absent.
- Superego not fully formed - so lack of morality.
- Individual feels less/no guilt over their criminal behaviour because their id has taken over their psyche - overpowering the superego.

24
Q

Describe the Harsh superego

A

HARSH SUPEREGO
- Develops because of strict parenting.
- Harsh superego punishes for everything - unforgiving - increases feelings of guilt.
- Child unconsciously seeks opportunities where they will be punished to reduce guilt - satisfying the superegos need for punishment.

25
Q

Describe the Deviant superego

A

DEVIANT SUPEREGO
- Child internalises a parent’s criminal values.
- Develops a superego that has the same deviant morals as their parent.
- Doesn’t believe behaviour is wrong so no guilt.

26
Q

Evaluate the Inadequate Superego.

A

+ INTUITIVE APPEAL - explains motiveless crimes e.g. theft of insignificant items - could be due to harsh superego.

+ POSSIBLE EVIDENCE - 40% with criminal fathers turn to crime. H: SLT, biological?

  • UNFALSIFIABLE - unconscious - untestable - lacking empirical evidence - decrease validity
  • CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE - little evidence that children raised without same sex parents are more criminal - would have weak superego L: alternative explanations - poverty, SLT, genetic etc.
27
Q

Describe Maternal Deprivation as an explanation for crime.

A

Bowlby argued that ability to form healthy adult relationships was dependent upon a child forming a healthy, continuous relationship with a mother figure - vital to development and well-being.

Failure to form unique attachment bond in early life will cause irreversible consequences (intellectual, emotional and social) and more likely to engage in acts of delinquency.

Can lead to affectionless psychopathy - lack of guilt.

44 THEIVES STUDY

28
Q

Evaluate the Maternal Deprivation explanation for offending. (2+, 1-)

A

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - effort made to keep mother with child - e.g. in prison - reducing crime. H: socially sensitive - guilt on mothers.

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH - 44 thieves study - 14 of 44 affectionless psychopaths. 12 of these 14 - prolonged maternal separation in infancy. Control group - only 2 experienced separation.

  • RESEARCH IS PURELY CORRELATIONAL - other factors involved e.g. poverty, genetics, SLT - cannot establish C-E relationship. L: methodological criticisms - retrospective data.
  • Socially sensitive
29
Q

Describe the Differential Association Explanation for crime.

A

We learn our values, attitudes and motives from those we associate with. If associate with criminals we learn criminal values etc. (crime is learned).

LEARNED ATTITUDES TOWARDS CRIME
- Group Socialisation exposes people to values and attitudes of the group.
- If pro-crime values outweigh anticrime values, person will become criminal.
- Technically possible to mathematically predict how likely someone is to be criminal.

LEARNING CRIMINAL ACTS
- People need to learn criminal techniques if they are to become criminal.
- Criminals learn criminal techniques in prisons with other criminals - causing high reoffending rates.

Learn through direct an indirect (vicarious) reinforcement.

30
Q

Evaluate Differential Association.

A

+ EVIDENCE - 40% of sons of criminal fathers had convictions and 13% with non-criminal fathers - behaviour learnt. H: genetics

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - reduce crime by changing environments and educating people - learning. L: can be used to predict who is likely to be criminal.

  • REDUCTIONIST - ignored biological factors - too simplistic L: diathesis stress - triggered by socialisation.
  • CANNOT EXPLAIN ALL TYPES OF CRIME - e.g. can only explain smaller crimes like theft - incomplete explanation.
31
Q

What is offender profiling?

A

The process of using all available info about a crime in order to compose a picture of what the offender might be like. Narrows down the suspect list.

32
Q

Describe FBI Top Down Approach to profiling.

A

Carried out by matching new crime scenes to an existing template of types of offenders.
- Templates created through interviews with 36 sexually motivated killers.

Organised:
- signs of planning, few clues left, victim targeted.
- intelligent, socially skilled, skilled job, lives with partner
- offenders leave the area

Disorganised:
- little sign of planning, little attempt to conceal evidence, little control of victim.
- low intelligence, socially unskilled, unskilled work, lives alone, mental illness
- likely to live near the crime

FBI Process:
1) Data Assimilation - PMs, police reports etc
2) Crime Classification - organised/disorganised
3) Crime Reconstruction
4) Profile Generation - physical, demographic and behavioural characteristics

33
Q

Evaluate the FBI Top Down Approach to profiling

A

+ EVIDENCE - helped focus 77% of investigations and identified suspect 15% - effective at narrowing down suspects - quicker arrests - H: not identifying suspects

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - e.g. Arthur Shawcross - police recognised he would revisit dead body - used to predict characteristics and behaviour of criminals. H: limited applications - best suited to specific crimes e.g. arson, cult killings and rape NOT theft etc.

  • ISSUE WITH VALIDITY OF CLASSIFICATION - self-report interviews - social desirability bias, cannot trust serial killers - mentally unstable - reduced validity - L: low pop validity - 36 murderers
  • CRITICISM OF O/D classification - a variety of combinations could occur e.g. high IQ but little attempt to conceal evidence - too simplistic - L: other researchers suggest different types of serial killer/motivations
34
Q

Describe the Bristish Bottom Up approach to profiling.

A

Canter’s Approach based on details of crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender patterns.
- Offenders are consistent in their personalities (Criminal Consistency Hypothesis) and a criminals actions are consistant over time.
- The crime scene will provide info about their personality, background and life away from crime.

5 FACTOR MODEL:
1) SIGNIFICANCE OF TIME AND PLACE - clues to residency and personal life/schedule
2) FORENSIC AWARENESS - the way an individual commits a crime gives clues to criminal history and levels of forensic awareness e.g. removing fingerprints/traces of DNA.
3) CRIMINAL CAREER - clues to if criminal has engaged in criminal activity in the past - experience might modify behaviour.
4) INTERPERSONAL COHERENCE - whether variation in criminal activity relates to everyday life.
5) CRIMINAL CHARACTERISTICS - the way a crime is committed can lead to a classification system based on interviews and empirical research - common characteristics of offenders

35
Q

How does the Bottom up approach differ from the Top Down Approach?

A

Canter emphasises importance of statistical procedures to analyse crime scenes - using the scientific method and controlled studies (rather than reliance on interviews - Top-down).

Canter does not agree with organised/disorganised categorising and instead identifies features of the crime (using statistical analysis) in order to establish a database of crime characteristics that are rare and distinctive.

36
Q

Evaluate Bottom Up Profiling (2+, 1-)

A

+ RELIANCE ON STATISTICAL ANALYSIS - e.g.content analysis and smallest space analysis (computer program that identifies correlations across patterns in behaviour) - scientific - less subjective - high validity - h: statistics only as accurate as the data that is inputted - may be unrepresentative - biased/missing data

+ WIDER APPLICATION - more types of offences e.g. theft - more practical applications than top-down approach - catch more criminal - H: found to directly identify criminal in only 3% cases, but 83% of time was helpful.

  • PREDICTION MAY NOT ALWAYS BE APPLICABLE - relies on averages e.g. ‘average offender who is abusive towards victim is usually abusive towards women’ - does not consider individual differences - personality not always consistant. H: many agree it produces far more tailor made profiles than FBIs method.
37
Q

Describe the British Approach of Geographical Profiling.

A

Uses techniques to analyse locations of series of crimes to indicate where the offender might live, work, socialise or travel. Based on the assumption that serial offenders prefer to operate in areas they know/have a mental map of (Crime Mapping - based on an offender’s centre of gravity).

Geographical profiling aims to reconstruct and interpret the offenders MENTAL MAP.

USED TO:
- Identify which offences are linked.
- Predict likely location of offender’s base.
- Predict other characteristics of the offenders.
- Helps police and other officials to target crime prevention resources.

CIRCLE THEORY:
- Commuters - travel a distance from their base to commit crimes.
- Marauders - prefer to operate in close proximity to their base.

Circle theory suggests that a circle drawn to encompass all the crimes in a series is likely to contain the offender’s base. This contains a JEOPARDY SURFACE of wherer the offender is likely to strike again.

38
Q

Evaluate Geographical profiling. (2+)

A

+ SUPPORTING EVIDENCE - Canter - computer program ‘smallest space analysis’ used to analyse locations of body disposal from murders - worked out murderers’ bases by creating a centre of gravity from these disposal sites - effective at identifying base and jeapordy surface of criminals.

+ PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS - help police to focus resouces and time to the right places by working out jeapordy sufaces - quicker arrests - H: can lead to incorrect arrests - wasting time.

39
Q

What is custodial sentencing?

Describe the 4 aims of custodial sentencing?

A

Where the court required that the offender be held in prison or some other closed institution.

REHABILITATION
offenders should leave prison a better adjusted person who no longer wants to offend. prisons should offer training and treatment.

RETRIBUTION
society is seeking revenge for crime by making criminal suffer. level of suffering = seriousness of crime. prison often seen as offering the most retribution.

INCAPACITATION
physically preventing further criminal behaviour as criminal is removed from society. need for this is dependent on the type of crime and nature of offender.

DETERRENCE
prison should be enough of an unpleasant environment and experience to put people off from offending. should create: General deterrence (putting majority off offending) and Individual deterrence (putting individuals off from repeating crimes again).

40
Q

What is recidivism? Give the rates for Norway and USA.

A

The reoffending of prisoners.

Norway: 20%, USA: 77%

Norway has open systems and a greater emphasis on skill development. Focuses on restorative justice. However, people think the punishment is too soft.

41
Q

Evaluate Rehabilitation (1+,1-)

A

+ Prisons have high opportunities for training programmes e.g. anger management, numeracy/literacy etc - prisoners leave a better adjusted person - reducing recidivism and achieving rehabilitation.

  • Offenders not forced to take part in training programs and some do with superficial involvement (e.g to decrease sentence) - prisoners may leave no different than when they came - not achieving rehabilitation.
42
Q

Evaluate Incapacitation (1+, 1-)

A

+ Majority of crime is prevented by imprisonment - reducing crime rate - incapacitation achieved - society protected.

  • Many crimes can still be committed in prison - e.g. drug offence, assault etc - while society protected, criminals aren’t prevented from committing all crimes.
43
Q

Evaluate Retribution (1+,1-)

A

+ Some attempt is made to match the crime with the punishment - min and max tarrifs/lengths of sentences given to different crimes - shows sense of retribution/justice achieved - increasing satisfaction of society.

  • Impossible to test scientifically whether the criminal feels the same ‘pain’ during punishment as the victim felt during crime - total retribution cannot be guaranteed - people may not feel sense of justice.
44
Q

Evaluate Deterrence (1+, 1-)

A

+ Only 15% of people in prison are first offenderes - majority who have never been to prison will never go - majority of society deterred from crime - mostly achieving general deterrence.

  • Up to 70% recidivism for UK prisoners - - majority who have been in prison before are not deterred from future offending - not achieving individual deterrence.
45
Q

Describe the Psychological Effects of Imprisonment.

A

METNAL HEALTH
- 80-90% have mental health problems
- anxiety and depression commonly experienced
- suicide and self-harm attempt more common in prison.

INSTITUTIONALISATION
- offender takes on the roles and norms of prison life and find it difficult to reintegrate into society –> reoffending

OVERCROWDING AND PRIVACY
- 25% of prisoners live in overcrowded prisons
- can affect psychological state of prisoner e.g. increased aggression, stress etc.

FAMILY EFFECTS
- children with parents in prison deeply affected. Parents themselves experience anxiety and guilt over separation - irreversible IES damage - affectionless psychopathy - increasing crime.

46
Q

Evaluate psychological Effects of Imprisonment (2+, 1-)

A

+ SUPPORTING RESEARCH - Zimbardo - institutionalisation - deindividuation (called themselves by numbers) - increased violent and psycho damage.

+ MORE RESEARCH - overcrowding with rats led to increased aggression, stress, illness etc. - overcrowding and decreased privacy can lead to psycho and physical harm - h: low pop validity

  • INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES - prisons are different, different sentences, existing mental health issues etc - difficult to make a general conclusions about psycho effects for all prisoners - hard to show cause and effect - too many factors involved.

EXTRA:
- Alternatives to prison - e.g. community service - better for some offenders - reduce recidivism - H: not relevant to severe criminals.
- Cautions shown to be just as effective deterrents than arrests.

47
Q

Describe Restorative Justice

A

Focuses on rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims.

Offenders see the impact of their crime and the process gives the victim a voice.

Can include:
- face to face encounter - statement from both sides.
- offender may give a financial restitution to victim.
- service within the community to reflect the nature of the crime.
- variations such as a letter or video.

Victim and offender meet with a trained RJ mediator present. Victim give an impact statement of how the crime affected them so offender can see consequences of their actions.
Lengthy process. Can be an alternative to prison.

Aims:
OFFENDER - understand effect of actions, apologise and accept responsibility, opportunity to change
VICTIM - greater voice in criminal justice system, understand why the crime was committed, able to have closure, empowerment.
COMMUNITY - rebuild a sense of community and mutual accountability, reduces frequency of reoffending, saves money (£8 in savings for every £1 spent on R)J, retribution.

48
Q

Evaluate Restorative justice

A

+ ACHIEVMENT OF RETRIBUTION - 85% satisfaction from victims who had face to face meetings with their offender - victims experience a greater sense of retribution and closure H: 25%

+ GREATER ADVANTAGES OF RJ THAN CUSTODIAL SENTENCING - e.g. opportunity to understand faults, feel guilt and change - reduces recidivism rates h: many see RJ as a soft option - not fully punishing victims and offenders may take part due to superficial motivation.

  • EXPENSIVE - training RJ mediators - highly skilled - lots of time and preparation - high drop out rate. Could waste money. H: could save money long-term - less reoffending, less time in prison etc.
  • CANNOT COMPLETELY REPLACE OTHER PUNISHMENTS - e.g. not suitable for all offenders - mentally unstable, severe criminals - cannot reason with. Individual differences. Could make situation worse for victim. may not be applicable for children.
49
Q

Describe Anger Management

A

Novaco suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which can lead to aggressive acts.
Behaviourists argue that being angry is reinforced (as it makes a person feel in control) and so it is repeated.

  • A CBT treatment
  • Teaches individuals to identify signs that trigger anger teaches techniques to deal with those situations in a positive way.
  • Teaches self-control - reducing disruptive behaviour.

1) COGNITIVE PREPARATION- offender reflects on their typical pattern of behaviour, indentifies triggers and cnsequences of getting angry and examines if they interpret events in a rational way.
2) SKILL ACQUISITION - giving offender techniques and skill to deal with anger-inducing situations. Can be cognitive (self-talk), behavioural (communication skills) or physiological (relaxation methods).
3) APPLICATION PRACTICE - offenders practice their skills (e.g. role play). If role play is successful, offender is rewarded ith positive reinforcement.

50
Q

Evaluate Anger Management

A

+ GIVES OFFENDERS POWER TO CHANGE INSIGHTS INTO OWN THOUGHTS/BEHAVIOUR - teaches techniques and skills e.g. identifying triggers and communication - can be applied to everyday life, empowering, reduces anger - H: drop out rates are high - voluntary - expensive.

+ SUPPORTING EVIDENCE - 8 2 hour sessions - Novaco reported 75% improvement rates and increased self-control. Effective at reducing anger. H: limited LT benefits as it focuses on ST goals and there are few studies looking at LT effects.

  • METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES with research into AM - e.g. AM programmes are variables (length, type of offender, staff experience) - makes comparability difficult - L: self-report - hello-goodbye effect - decreased validity.
  • DOESN’T BENEFIT ALL OFFENDERS - not effective for 25% - some don’t like reflecting on their styles of thinking and find it difficult to change attitude/behaviour - individual differences and not effective for non-violent criminals. H: drop out rate is decreased by using drama-based engaging courses.
51
Q

Describe Token Economies.

A

If we can learn criminal behaviour (behaviourist) then it should be possible to unlearn criminal beahviour. TE is about reinforcing obedience and punishing disobedience.

  • Desriable behaviour broken down into incremental steps and rewards for associated steps (Shaping).
  • Uses OC to promote desirable behaviour by awarding with tokens (secondary reinforcer) e.g. following rules, avoiding conflict, keeping tidy etc.
  • Tokens are exchanged for primary reinforcers (activities, trips, food, phone calls etc.)
  • Some use punishments (token/rewards taken away) in order to decrease undesirable behavour.

Program has to be clearly explained to inmates and all staff must follow the same structure.

52
Q

Describe Hobbs and Holt study. Biefly evaluate (1+, 3-)

A

AIM: to see

PROCEDURE
- used boys detained in a correlational institution. boys lived in cottages. 3/4 were given the token system. 1 was a control.
- Tokens given for good behaviour and could be exchanged for sweets. drinks or recreational activities.
- Data collected for 14 months - target behaviour rated by 2 staff memebers for inter-rater reliability.

FINDINGS
- system improved the boys behaviour compared to controls.

+ Practical applications - decrease crime in prison, but may not outside of prison.
- Other variables could be involved - e.g. IQ, peer competition, staff better at spotting good behaviour, demand characteristics etc.
- Correlational Insitution - lacking ecological validity
- Unethical - some target behaviour chosen for convenience of staff rather than helping boys adjust to outside world e.g. line behaviour.

53
Q

Evaluate Token Economies

A

+ SIMPILICITY OF THE PROGRAM - e.g. easy to implement, little need for highly trained professionals like Anger Management - low cost and easy for staff members to follow - H: requires consistency between staff members.

+ EVIDENCE - e.g. Hobbs and Holt - increased desriable behaviour compared to controls - reduced crime in prisons - H: LT effects questionable outside of prison once rewards are no longer applicable.

  • RAISES ETHICAL ISSUES - e.g. some see behaviour modification as dehumanising and that prisoners may not consent if they had the choice - system is not vulunatry (lack of informed consent) and some rewards should be basic human rights e.g. contact with family, exercise etc). - H: others argue it isn’t unethical as offenders are well aware of what they need to do to get their rewards.
  • PRISONERS ARE JUST PASSIVE RECIPIENTS - e.g. offenders in the TE system are superficially learning behaviours - does not get offenders to reflect on the cause of their criminal behaviour, no LT change - L: in constrast to AM wherer focus is on giving offenders control and power to change, TE is just a ‘play along’ until they leave.

Psychology (17 decks)

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