forensic psychology Flashcards

Question

Limitations of Eysenck's Theory of Criminal Personality

Answer 1

Opposing Evidence - Farringdon et al found that offender tended to score higher on the Psychoticism but not Extraversion or Neuroticism - Also found very little difference in EEG (measured Cortical Arousal) between extraverts and introverts Cultural Differences - Bartol and Holanchock found in 6 groups of African-American and Hispanic offenders they were less Extraverted than non-offenders - Challenges generalisability to other Cultures / races

Answer 2

- Kohlberg's Model of Moral Reasoning - Cognitive Distortions

Answer 3

- Proposed people's decisions on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral development - Based on people's responses to Moral Dilemmas

Answer 4

- Kohlberg et al tested a group of 72 Chicago violent youths with a set of moral dilemmas - Found that violent youths were at a much lower level of moral development compared to non-violent youths - Even after controlling for social backgrounds

Answer 5

3 distinct levels - Pre-conventional - bases morals on Reward / Punishment and Self Interest - Conventional - bases morals on Pleasing Others and Law & Order - Post-Conventional - bases morals on Social Contract and Principle People can only pass through these levels in the order listed

Answer 6

- Idea that Criminals have faulty thinking of the way the interpret other peoples behaviour and their own actions 2 types of Cognitive Distortion - Hostile Attribution Bias - Minimalisation

Answer 7

When an Offender interprets social cues as hostile when they are not - Schonenberg and Justye presented 55 offenders with an ambiguous face and most perceived this as hostile

Answer 8

When an offender downplays the seriousness of their actions - Bombaree found that in 26 convicted rapists 54% denied committing an offence and 40% minimalised their actions

Answer 9

Supporting Evidence - Palmer & Hollin compared moral reasoning 332 male & female non-offenders and 126 Convicted Felons in a series of moral dilemmas - The offender group showed lower moral reasoning than the non-offenders - Blackburn suggested that offender show lower moral reasoning due to a lack of role playing opportunists in childhood

Answer 10

Social Desirability Bias - Theory is based off of Theoretical Moral Dilemmas and therefore may not be answered truthfully - Not representative of real life scenarios Types of Distortions - Howitt and Sheldon found that the cognitive distortions differ between types of offenders - Non-contact Sexual Offenders (accessed images online) used much more Cognitive Distortions than Contact Sexual Offenders - Those with a history of Sexual Offence are more likely to use Cognitive Distortions as justification

Answer 11

Suggests Offenders inherit a Gene or Combination of Genes that predispose them to Crime its made up of: - Twin & Adoption Studies - Candidate Genes - Diathesis Stress Model

Answer 12

Twin Studies - Christiansen demonstrated the importance of genetics through studies 3500 pairs of twins in Denmark - He found concordance rates of 35% in MZ twins and 13% in DZ twins - Suggests Offending may not be genetic but it has a underlying predisposition Adoption Studies - Crowe found that adopted children whose biological mothers were offenders had a 50% risk of offending before 18 - Whereas children whose biological mother wasnt an offender had a 5% risk

Answer 13

- Tiihonen did a genetic analysis of 800 Finish Offenders - Suggested that 2 Genes were associated with violent behaviour - the MAOA Gene is regulates serotonin levels and is associated with aggressive behaviour - The CDH13 Gene is associated with substance abuse and ADD - The study found that around 5-10% of crime in Finland is due to these genes

Answer 14

- The idea that Offending may have a Genetic Disposition but is only Triggered by an Event / Stress - e.g. Being raised in a Dysfunctional House or having Role Models who are criminals

Answer 15

Supportive Evidence for Candidate Genes - Brunner did a case study on a Dutch family where the males had a history of aggression - Found that 5 of them had Defective MAOA Genes - Suggests there is some Genetic Origin to Crime Supportive Evidence for Diathesis Stress - Mednick et al did a study of 13,000 Danish adoptees - Found when neither the Adoptive or Biological parents had convictions the risk of offending was 13.5% - When one of the Biological parents had a conviction this rose to 20% - When both the Biological and Adoptive Parents had convictions this rose again to 24.5% - Suggests there is genetic and environmental factor

Answer 16

Biologically Deterministic - The idea that our genetics define whether we will offend or not does is deterministic as not all people with the Candidate Genes will Offend - This also doesn't work with the Criminal Justice System as it may cause people to be convicted just due to their biology

Answer 17

There may be Neural differences in Offenders and Non-Offenders - Much of this is linked to Anti-Personality Disorder It is made up of: - Prefrontal Cortex - Mirror Neurons

Answer 18

- Raine conducted research with Brain Scans on the APD brain - Found less activity in the Prefrontal Cortex in people with Anti-Personality Disorder which regulates emotional responses - Also found and 11% Reduction in Grey Matter in the Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 19

- Keysers found that only when people with APD were asked to empathise (with a video of a person getting hurt) did their Empathy Response (Mirror Neurons) activate - Suggests people with APD can empathise but not in the same way as everyone else

Answer 20

Supportive Evidence - Kandel and Freed found reviewed evidence of Frontal Lobe damage (including Prefrontal Cortex) and APD - Found people with this damage tended to show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability, and inability to learn from mistakes - Suggests Brain Damage may be a factor

Answer 21

Intervening Variables - Farringdon et al studied a group of men that scored high on Psychopathy (APD) - Found that the men had experienced many risk factors during childhood (e.g. raised by convicted parent or physically neglected) - These factors could have caused APD or other neural issues - Suggests the link between APD and offending isn't as clear and other variables could be affecting it

Answer 22

Proposes the idea that Criminal Behaviour is learnt through interaction with others - Frequency + Intensity + Duration = Likelihood of Offending Made up of: - Scientific Basis - Offending as a Learnt Behaviour - Socialisation in Prison

Answer 23

Sutherland Developed a set of Principals that could explain all types of Offending - 1) Criminal Behaviour is learnt not Inherited - 2) It is Learnt through Association with Others - 3) It is Learnt from Intimate Personal Groups - 4) Techniques & Attitudes / Motivations are learnt - 5) Learning is Directional (either for or against crime) - 6) If the number of positive attitudes (for crime) outweigh the negatives a person will offend - 7) Learning experiences differ in Frequency & Intensity from person to person - 8) Criminal Behaviour is learnt through the same process as any other behaviour - 9) General Need is not a Sufficient Explanation for Crime

Answer 24

- Sutherland's theory also explains why so many Convicted offenders go on to reoffend - Inmates will learn specific techniques in prison and will go on to use them upon release

Answer 25

Focus Shift - Sutherland was able to move the emphasis from early biological explanations for Crime to something based around Social Circumstances and Environments - Less Deterministic approach Supportive Evidence - Mednick et al found that boys who had Criminal Adoptive Parents and Non-Criminal Biological parents were more likely to offend (14.7%) - Illustrates the importance of Family Influence

Answer 26

Hard to Test - Many of Sutherland's concepts are not Operationalised which makes them very difficult to test - E.g. its hard to see how many Pro-Crime attitudes a person has / has been exposed to - This means that its difficult to pinpoint the criminal career is initialised

Answer 27

It is made up of: - The Inadequate Superego - Theory of Maternal Deprivation

Answer 28

- The Superego works on the Morality Principle by Punishing the Ego through Guilt - Blackburn suggested that a deficient Superego will cause Offending as the Id is not properly controlled 3 Types of deficient Superego's were proposed: - The Weak Superego - The Deviant Superego - The Over-Harsh Superego

Answer 29

- A boy with no father figure doesn't internalise normal Characteristics - The lack of Identification would make Offending or Immoral behaviour more likely

Answer 30

- If the Superego a child develops is Immoral this would lead to Criminal Behaviour - E.g. If the Child has a Criminal Father they may not associate Guilt with Wrongdoing

Answer 31

- An Overly-Harsh Parenting Style leads to a child with an Overly Harsh Superego - Would lead to Child being Crippled by Guilt and Anxiety - Could drive the Individual to commit crime to Satisfy the Superego's need for Punishment

Answer 32

- It can lead to Affectionless Psychopathy which is Characterised by a Lack of Guilt, Empathy or Feelings for Others - This can lead to Delinquency (based of the 44 Thieves study)

Answer 33

Supportive Evidence - Goreta did a Freudian analysis on 10 offenders and found each Offender had Unconscious Feelings of Guilt and the Need for Self-Punishment - Suggests this is the result of a Over-Harsh Superego Counterpoint - The principles of Inadequate Superego are not supported - This is because we would expect to see much more offending in children who experienced Punitive Parenting Styles

Answer 34

Gender Bias - Freud suggests that Females dont resolve the Oedipus Complex and therefore would have much weaker Superegos - This is Alpha Bias as it has been shown that Females are less likely to offend than Males Unscientific Explanation - Bowlby's theory cannot be seen as Scientific Evidence for a faulty Superego causing Offending - This is because concepts like the Superego are not Directly Observable or Falsifiable - This means that it cannot be Empirically tested and should be seen as Unscientific

Answer 35

When an Offender spends time in Prison or another Closed Institute There are 4 main reasons for this: - Deterrence - Incapacitation - Retribution - Rehabilitation

Answer 36

- Prison is designed to 'Put people off' from doing crime - General Deterrence sends a broad message to society against crime - Personal Deterrence puts individuals who have experiences Prison from Reoffending - Based on Behaviourist ideas of Vicarious Punishment

Answer 37

- Offenders are taken out of Society for the Protection of the Public - The need for Incapacitation is dependant on the Severity of the persons Crime (e.g. Rapists and Murderers are more of a threat than someone not paying tax)

Answer 38

- Society enacting revenge on an Offender for their Crimes - The level of Suffering should be Proportionate to the Crime - Based on biblical notion of 'An Eye For An Eye'

Answer 39

- Prison being somewhere for Offenders to be reformed - Offenders should come out better adjusted for Society - Prison should provide Opportunities for Offenders to develop skill and access to Treatment Programmes

Answer 40

Stress & Depression - High Suicide Rates - Increases risk of Psychological Disturbance following Release Institutionalisation - Adopted norms and routines of Prison Life - Makes harder to Adjust to Society on Release Prisonisation - Adopted 'Inmate Code' - Unacceptable behaviour in Society may be Praised in Prison

Answer 41

Refers to Reoffending Rates - 57% of Offenders will Reoffend within a Year - 2007 14 Prisons in England & Wales recorded Reoffending Rates over 70%

Answer 42

Support for Rehabilitation - Rehabilitation model is built on idea that Offenders may become 'better people' in Prison - Access to Education and Training will allow them to live Crime Free on release - Also things like Anger-Management or Social Skills Training will allow them to function better - Decreases Recidivism

Answer 43

Evidence for Psychological Harm - Bartol suggested Prison was Brutal, Demeaning and Devastating - In last 20 years Suicide rates are 15x Higher in Prison than regular life - Prison Reform Trust found that 25% of women and 15% of men reported symptoms of Psychosis Better Alternatives - Davis & Raymond said that Government Ministers often Exaggerate the Benefits of prison - In Reality it does little to Deter or Rehabilitate - Community Service and Restorative Justice have been proposed to be better alternatives

Answer 44

Idea of Reinforcing Positive Behaviours in Offenders and Punishing Disobedience so that they are better adjusted to Regular Life

Answer 45

- It is the Process of Reinforcing Desirable Behaviour with a token than can be Exchanged for Rewards - Desirable Behaviour may be: Avoiding Fights, Following Rules, Cleaning, E.c.t. - Tokens are Secondary Reinforcers as their value come from Association with Rewards - Rewards may be: Phone call, Yard Time, Extra Food, E.c.t

Answer 46

- Operationalised Target Behaviour - A Scoring System known by both Staff and Prisoners - Staff Training to ensure Standardised Procedures

Answer 47

Supportive Evidence - Hobbs and Holt introduced a Token Economy in 4 Groups of Young Delinquents (1 was a control) - Observed a Significant Difference in Positive Behaviour compared to Control - Allyon found Similar Results in an Adult Prison Easy to Implement - No need for Specialist Training - Cost-Effective - Easy to follow once workable Methods of Reinforcement are Established

Answer 48

Limited Rehabilitative Value - Works in Prisons but doesn't extend beyond Custodial Setting - Blackburn "Little Rehabilitative Value" Ethical Issues - Can be regarded as Manipulative and Dehumanising (Moya & Achtenburg) - Programme isn't optional - Withdrawal of contact with Loved ones and Exercise is questionable

Answer 49

Novaco suggests that Cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal which cause Aggressive Acts Therapy made up of 3 Stages: - Cognitive Preparation - Skills Acquisition - Application Practice

Answer 50

- Offender learns to Identify Situations that act as a Trigger - Therapist tries to Redefine the situations as Non-Threatening to break the automatic response

Answer 51

- Offenders are taught Techniques to help deal with Anger-Provoking Situations Techniques may be: - Positive Self Talk (Cognitive) - Behavioural Assertiveness Training (Behavioural) - Physiological Methods of Relaxation (Physiological)

Answer 52

- Offenders Practice their skills within a Carefully Monitored Environment - Role Play often used to Re-enact Scenarios that may have escalated feelings of Violence

Answer 53

- Studied Progress of offenders aged 17-21 who did Anger Management Programme consisting of 8 two hour lessons - Generally Positive Outcomes with Increased Capacity of Self Control

Answer 54

Compared Progress of 2 groups of Offenders - group 1 took part in 12 session Anger Management Programme and the Other was a Control - Outcomes were assessed by: an Interview, a Behaviour Checklist, and a Self Report Questionnaire - 92% showed Improvement on at least 1 Measure - 48% showed an Improvement on both the Checklist and Self Report

Answer 55

Outlasts Behaviour Modification - Tackles Cognitive Processes that Trigger Anger not just Surface behaviour - May give Offenders insight into the cause of their Criminality and allow for them to manage themselves outside of Prison - Leads to more Permanent Change

Answer 56

Individual Differences - Howells et al found that participation had Little Overall Impact when compared to a Control Group - However this was not true for all people as Significant Progress was made by: - Offenders who had showed Intense Anger Levels beforehand - Offenders who were Open to Change and Motivated - Suggests Anger Management will only help Certain People Expensive - Require Highly Trained Specialists - Also Requires Commitment to participation from Offender (who may be uncooperative and apathetic) - Change takes time and therefore will increase costs - Suggests Anger Management may not work in all Prisons

Answer 57

Aims to rebuild relationships between the Offender and the Victim / Community - Techniques used include Face-to-Face meetings between Victim and Offender - Considers the Offender to have committed a Crime against an Individual Victim rather than the State - Braithwaite - "Crime hurts, Justice should Heal"

Answer 58

- Trained Mediator Supervises meetings - Non-Courtroom setting - Victim given Opportunity to explain to Offender how they affected them - Active Involvement from both Parties - Focus on Positive Outcomes - Inclusion of Other Community Members

Answer 59

- Restorative Justice may occur Pre-Trial - Could also Function alongside a Prison Sentence or as an Alternative - Restitution may be a Financial Payment relative to the Crime, but could also have the Offender repair damaged property Themselves - Restitution could also be a Emotional repayment

Answer 60

- An Independent Body whose role it is to Establish clear Standards for the use of Restorative Justice - Supports Victims or Specialists in the Field

Answer 61

Supportive Evidence - Shapland et al reported results from a 7 year long study - Found that 85% of Survivors reported satisfaction with the process of Face-to-Face meetings - 78% would recommend this to others and 60% said it helped them move on Evidence for Recidivism - Strang et al 10 study Meta-Analysis Compared Offenders in Restorative Justice programmes with those in Custodial Sentencing - Found Restorative Justice group was significantly less likely to Reoffend - Bain found in review of 10 Studies found Lowered Recidivism rate in Adult Offenders when using Face-to-Face Contact

Answer 62

Reliance of Agreement - The Programmes Succession may be Dependant on the extent that the Offender feels Remorse - There is Danger that some Offenders may sign up just to get a reduced sentence rather than genuine willingness - The Victim may also only be attending to get Retribution of their own