Fluid Compartments (1) Flashcards
Total body water
60% of body weight
= 42 L
ECF
20% of body weight
= 14 L
ICF
40% of body weight
= 28 L
Interstitial fluid
3/4 of ECF
= 10.5 L
Plasma
1/4 of ECF
= 3.5 L
Measurement of volume of fluid compartments
Dilution method
Adding tracer, allow mixing, measure concentration
Volume = Mass / Conc.
Dye for Total fluid compartment
Deuterium
(Hydrogen isotope)
Dye for ECF
Inulin
Dye for Blood plasma
Evans-blue
(binds albumin)
Na+ E/ICF
ECF: 135 - 147 mM
ICF: 10 - 15 mM
K+ E/ICF
ECF: 3.5 - 5.0 mM
ICF: 120 - 150 mM
Ca2+ E/ICF
(Total)
ECF: 2.1 - 2.8 mM
ICF: 100nM
Ca2+ E/ICF
(Free)
ECF: 1.1 - 1.4 mM
ICF: 100 nM
Cl- E/ICF
ECF: 95 - 105 mM
ICF: 20 - 30 mM
HCO3- E/ICF
ECF: 22 - 28 mM
ICF: 12 - 16 mM
Oncotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure of proteins
- Proteins are superosmols
Hyposmotic / Hypotonic
Cell volume increases
Hyperosmotic / Hypertonic
Cell shrinks
Isosmotic urea solution
Eventually Hypotonic due to movement of Urea into cell (permeable) causing hypotonicity and cell to swell
Osmolarity of most human body fluids
290 mOsm/L
2 Types of Protein mediated transport
- Carriers
- Channels
Carriers
- Slow
- Can saturate
- Active
Channels
- Fast
- Can’t saturate
- Passive
Primary vs Secondary active T
- Prim: Pump
- Sec: Coupled Active + Passive
Electrogenic vs Electroneutral T
Electrogenic T creates net charge across membrane
Facilitated diffusion
- Faster than free diffusion
- Passive
- Specific
- Integral pm protein
Aquaporins
Water transport across membrane
- 11 isoforms
- Passive
Special about GLUT4
Insulin dependent
(activates it)
GLUT 5
Transport of Fructose along with glucose
GLUT2 mech
Regulates glucose levels based on plasma glucose concentration, unlike GLUT1 which works constantly
Anion exchanger
Cl- / HCO3-
- RBCs fro CO2 transport
- Passive
- Electroneutral
- Antiporter
Na+ / K+ ATPase
- 3Na out, 2K in
- Electrogenic
- Inh: Ouabain
- In all cells
3 Ways to regulate Transporters
(in order of speed)
1) Activity (phosphorylation)
2) Trafficking (vesicle storage)
3) Expression (gene exp.)
Calcium ATPase
(SERCA)
Responsible for low cytoplasmic Ca levels
- Electrogenic
- SR & SER
- 2 Ca2+
ABC Transporter
Active transport of Hydrophobic compounds (Cholesterol, Bile,…)
- Responsible for multi-drug resistance of cells
- CFTR
2 Types of Exocytosis
- Constitutive: Non-regulated continuous
- Regulated secretory pathway (intracellular signalling)
Second messenger-gated channels
Controlled by changes of intracellular signaling molecules (cAMP, IP3)
- Sensors on IC membrane
VG Ca channels a1 subunit
a1 subunit forms ion pore
5 Types of VG Ca channels
- L-Type (long-lasting)
- T-Type (transient)
- N-Type (neuronal)
- P-Type (purkinje)
- R-Type (residual)
N-type VG Ca channel
For Synaptic NT release in Brain and PNS
- High activation voltage
T-type VG Ca channel
- SA node
- Pacemaker activity
- Low activation Voltage
L-type VG Ca channel
- Skeletal, SM, Myocytes Contraction
- High activation Voltage
Neurons Em
-70 mV
Skeletal muscle Em
-90 mV
RBC Em
-10 mV
Diffusion potential
Potential difference generated across a membrane when an ion diffuses down its conc. gradient
- Magnitude depends on size of con. gradient
Equilibrium potential (Eion)
Membrane potential when the net ion flow through an open channel is 0
What can we use to calc Eion
If we know ion conc. on both sides of a membrane and there is no net flow of the ions across the membrane,
= Nernst Equation
Relative permeability of Na, K, Cl
K: 1.0
Na: 0.01
Cl: 0.1
What happens if the permeability of an ion changes
The membrane potential will change in the direction of the equilibrium potential of that ion
Eion of ions K, Na, Cl, Ca
K: -94 mV
Na: +65 mV
Cl: -88 mV
Ca: +130 mV
Donnan Potential
Electric potential when impermeable ions (large molecules) create charge imbalance bw 2 compartments leading to unequal distribution of permeable ions
Action Potential
A spreading wave of VG Na+ Channel activation (all-or-none)
Spreads without Decrement
Rapid, Transient, Self-propagating.
Electrotonic potential
+ Examples
A localized change in the membrane potential in response to a stimulus.
Spreads with Decrement
- EPSP
- IPSP
- Receptor pot.
(size and duration proportional to the stimulus)
Receptor Potential
Change in Voltage across a receptor membrane proportional to the Stimulus Strength resulting in Inward current flow
- Sensory receptor
Length/Space constant
The distance over which the change in potential decreases to a factor 1/e of its maximal value
Higher S.C = Faster conduction
What type of signal is an AP
Digital signal
(all-or-none)
What type of signal is a Graded Electrotonic Potential
Analog
(electric pulses of varying amplitude)
How does AP form in relation to Electrotonic potential
AP is a result of Electrotonic potential which reaches the threshold voltage and stimulates VG ion channels
What is normal threshold potential of a cell for AP
-50 mV
Absolute refractory period
- Inactivation of VG Na channels
- No AP can form no matter the strength of the stimulus
Relative refractory period
- Hyperpolarization due to K+ channels
- Very strong stimulus needed to overcome the negative charge
Inhibitor of VD Na channel
Lidocaine
AP conduction is dependent on 2 factors
- Axon diameter (thicker = faster, R = V/A)
- Myelination (saltatory conduction bw nodes of ranvier)
Measure of Drug potency
EC50
Effective concentration of a drug required to reach 50% or the drug’s max effect
Measure of Drug efficacy
Emax
Max effect which can be expected from the drug
Constitutive activity
Receptors which are active even in the absence of a ligand
But can still change effect when ligand is present
Signaling by GTP-binding protein
- GEF (guanidine exchange factor) removes GDP from G-protein, allowing GTP to bind
- GAP (GTPase activating protein) cleaves GTP to GDP, inactivating the G-protein
G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCR)
Structure
- 7 TM domains
- Heterotrimeric (a, B, y)
G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCR)
Mechanism of Action
1) Ligand binds causing binding of receptor to G-protein
2) GTP to GDP
3) a-GTP dissociates from By
4) Act on effectors
Gs
Act. of Adenylyl cyclase increasing cAMP
1) ATP to cAMP
2) cAMP act. of PKA
(PDE breaks down cAMP)
Gi/o
Inh. of Adenylyl cyclase decreasing cAMP
1) cAMP drops, PKA drops
2) K+ channel act. = hyperpol.
3) Ca2+ channel inh
4) PLA2 act.
Gq/11
Increase in I.C Ca2+ conc.
1) Stim. of PLC
2) PIP2 to IP3 and DAG
3) DAG activates PKC
4) IP3 increases sarcoplasmic and ER Ca2+ release
5) MLCK - muscle contraction
6) Act. of cAMP phosphodiesterase
(cAMP, PKA, inhib. of MLCK)
G12/13
Regulates guanine nucleotide exchange factors
1) Activation of Rho Kinase by Rho-GTP
2) Smooth muscle contraction
Ca2+ channels in ER (RyR)
IP3 receptors
- RyR1: Skeletal muscle
- RyR2: Cardiac receptor
- Ryr3: Others
B-arrestin on GPCR
1) GPCRK phosphorylates the activated receptor with Ligand
2) Receptor binds B-arrestin
3) B-arrestin uncouples the receptor from G-proteins (desensitization)
a1- AR
- NE > E
- Gq/11
- Increase: IP3, Ca
- SM contraction
a2 - AR
- NE > E
- Gi/o
- dec: cAMP, Ca
- Inc: K+
- Presynaptic inhibition
B1 - AR
- NE = E
- Gs
- cAMP inc.
- Heart
B2 - AR
- E > NE
- Gs
- cAMP inc.
- Smooth m. Relaxation
B3 - AR
- NE > E
- Gs
- cAMP inc.
- Adipocytes
(Thermogenesis)
Ion channels
- Faster than GPCR
- Uses paracrine signaling
- Neurotransmitters
Ach-R
Nicotinic: Na+ / K+
Inh. by Curare
(Excitatory)
Glutamate-R
- NMDA: Na+ / K+ / Ca2+
- AMPA, Kinate: Na+ / K+
(Excitatory)
GABA-R
Type A&C: Cl-
(Inhibitory)
Glycine-R
Cl-
(Inhibitory)
2 types of Cholinergic-R
- Muscarinic
- Nicotinic
Muscarinic Ach-R
- Activate GPCR
- Inh. by Atropine
- M1, M3, M5: Gq/11
- M2, M4: Gi/o
Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK)
- GF, Insulin
- E.C binding site, I.C tyrosine kinase domain
RTK mechanism
1) Ligand binding causes dimerization
2) Autophosphorylation
3) SH2 domain of GRB2 recognizes phosphotyrosine
4) Signaling pathway
RTK signaling pathway
1) GRB2 recruits SOS
2) SOS activates RAS by GDP to GTP
3) MAPK produced
4) Phosphorylation of transcription factors in Nucleus
5) Cell proliferation / Survival
PIP3 Kinase Role
Inhibits Apoptosis pathway
1) PIP3 Kinase binds RTK with SH2 domain
2) PIP2 phosph. to PIP3
3) PIP3 recognized by PDK and PKB
4) PIP3-PDK activates PIP3-PKB
5) PKB phsophorylates “Bad” protein holding the death-inh. protein
How does NO synth work?
In soluble guanylyl cyclase
1) Cytosolic Ca with Calmodulin
2) Activates NOsynth
3) NO binds sGC making cGMP
4) PKG increase
5) MLCP act, MLCK inh.
Serine-Threonine Kinase-R
1) TGF-B (transf. growth f-B)
2) Binds type II subunit
3) Phosphorylated domain
4) Kinase activity on
5) Phosphorylation of target protein
Enzyme activity Linked -R
- GH receptor with no intrinsic TK activity
- Signaling mediated by JAK to activate STAT
- Gene regulation in Nucleus
- Cytokines, Prolactin, GH
Non-RTK associated-R
Steps
1) Ligand binding leads to JAK phosphorylation
2) Phosphorylation of receptor
3) Phosphorylation of STAT
4) Dimerized STAT enters nucleus to regulate gene expression
I.C Receptors
- For Hydrophobic molecules (Steroids, TH, VitD)
1) Binds Hsp90
2) NLS revealed
3) Receptor goes to Nucleus for transcription regulation
Thick muscle Filaments
- Contains myosin
- 1 pair of heavy chains
- 2 pairs of light chains
- Form 2 heads with ATPase
- Cross bridge: 2 heads on 1 myosin arm
Thin muscle Filaments
(Skeletal)
- 3 Proteins
- Actin, Tropomyosin, Troponin
Tropomyosin
- At rest blocks myosin binding sites on Actin
- Needs to move in order for contraction to occur
Troponin
- TnT: Attaches troponin to tropomyosin
- TnI: Inh. of actin-myosin interaction by blocking binding site
- TnC: Ca2+ binds here to move tropomyosin out of way allowing Myosin to bind Actin (contraction)
Electromechanical Coupling
Process where an electrical signal triggers Ca2+ release from SR initiating Muscle contraction
Electromechanical Coupling
Steps
1) AP propagates in T-tubules
2) Membrane depol. causes DHP-R change (L-VGCC)
3) RyR activated via mechanical coupling
4) Ca2+ increase, TnC activates, Contraction
What Decreases intracellular Ca2+
- Na+ / Ca2+ Exchanger (out)
- Ca2+ Pump (out)
- SERCA (to SR)
- PMCA
What binds Ca2+ in SR?
- Calreticulin
- Calsequestrin
Ca Storage and release from SR.
Myosin Cross-Bridge Cycle
(Sliding Filament Theory)
1) Myosin head binds Actin filament
2) Myosin does Power Stroke pulling Actin to center of Sarcomere
3) ATP binds myosin releasing it from Actin
4) ATP hydrolyzed and E used to Recock head
What happens when no ATP is in muscle
Rigor position
No ATP to dissociate Myosin head from actin filament causing a tight attachment and stiffness
Isometric Contraction
Muscle contraction without change in length of muscle
- Tension/Tone/strength increases
Isotonic Contraction
Muscle contraction without change in the force of contraction (tone)
- Length changes
- Constant level of force
Name when Isotonic and Isometric work together
Auxotonic contraction
Length-Tension relationship
Force of muscle contraction depends on the length of the sarcomere
Temporal summation muscle
When multiple stimuli are applied to a muscle in quick succession and they sum up
Slow Oxidative Motor units (I)
- Sustained movements (standing, posture)
- Less fatiguable
- Red fibers (myoglobin)
Fast Motor units (II)
- During bursting movement (jump, sprint)
- Glycolytic
- More fatiguable
- White fibers
Types of Muscle growth
- Lengthening
- Hypertrophy: Doubling myofibril diameter
- Hyperplasia: New fibers as a result of injury
Muscle fatigue
- Accumulation of Lactate in sarcoplasm, pH drop, Ca binding to TnC decreases
- Accumulation of Pi in sarcoplasm, Ca released from SR decreases, Ca sens. decreases, less a-m binding
Smooth Muscle
- Spindle shaped
- No sarcomeres
- No T-tubules
Thin muscle Filaments
(Smooth)
- Actin
- Tropomyosin
- NO TROPONIN
Single Unit SMC
- Gap Junctions
- Large regions contract in unison
- Characterized by spontaneous pacemaker activity
Multi-unit SMC
- Each cell has its own innervation
- Tightly regulated
Tonic contractions of SMC
Depol. does not peak beyond the electrical threshold (basal activity)
What channel is absent in SMC AP generation
T-type VGCC
3 ways to increase I.C Ca2+
- L-VGCC (primary)
- Ligand gated CC
- IP3 gated CC / RyR (SR)
How does contraction occur in SMC
1) Calcium binds Calmodulin
2) Ca-Calmodulin activates MLCK
3) Phosphorylates MLC increasing ATPase activity
4) Cross-bridge cycling
Ca2+ independent Contraction
1) G12/13 activates GEF
2) Activating Rho-GTP
3) Inh. of MLCP
4) MLCK phosphorylates
cGMP effects in SMC
- Activation of phosphatase
- Phosphorylation of IP3R
- Inh. Ca entry to cell
B2-AR effects in SMC
1) more cAMP
2) more PKA
3) Phosphorylates/inactivates MLCK
4) no contraction
Chemical Synapse
- Diffusion of NT
- Unidirectional
- 1-5 ms delay (to release NT)
- 20nm
- CNS & PNS
Electrical Synapse
- Ion transfer
- Bidirectional
- No delay
- 2nm
- CNS, PNS, SMCs, Heart
EPSPs
- 0.1-5 mV Depol. for milliseconds
- Ligand-gated non-selective cation channels
- Glutamate
- AMPA, NMDA, mGLU1-8
Metabotropic Glutamate -R
mGLU
- Mostly: Gi
- 1&5: Gq
IPSPs
- 0.1-5 mV Hyperpol. for milliseconds
OR - Stabilization of Em at Negative values - Ligand-gated Cl- or K+ channels
- GABA (y-aminobutyric acid)
GABA receptors
- GABA-A: Ligand-gated Cl- channel (activated by Benzodiazepine)
- GABA-B: Gi-Protein coupled-R (opening of K+ channels)
Types of Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
- Temporal Summation
- Spatial Summation
- Cancellation
Temporal Summation
2 potentials from the same origin occur together at the same time.
2 potentials add together to make a stronger one
Spacial Summation
2 Synapses of different origin close to each other add together to have an effect on the postsynaptic potential
Cancellation
EPSP and IPSP of the same magnitude added together, cancelling each other out
Loading of NT into Vesicles
- H+ ATPase pumps H+ into vesicle
- H+/NT exchanger takes H+ out and NT into vesicle
(Secondary Active Transport)
Ach synthesis
- Synthesized from Choline and Acetyl-coA by Choline Acetyl-transferase
- Into vesicle using secondary active transport of NT/H+ exchanger
Ach Recycling
- Ach broken down to Choline and Acetate by Ach Esterase
- Uptake of choline using Secondary active transport of Na+/Ach cotransporter
Depolarizing Muscle Relaxant
Agonist of Ach-R binds and can not be broken down or breaks down much slower than Ach
Causes over-activation and inactivation of the Na Channels
(Succinylcholine, Carbachol)
Non-Depolarizing Muscle Relaxant
Ach-R Antagonist
Binds Ach-R and blocks Na channel signal
(Curare, Turbocurarine, Pancuronium)
Myesthenia Gravis
NM autoimmune disease leading to muscle weakness due to auto-antibodies against nAch-R
Myesthenia Gravis Treatment
Neostigmine
Inhibits breakdown of Ach in NMJ so more Ach available for binding on Receptor
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Long Preganglionic fiber
- Short Postganglionic fiber
- Ggl in organ
- Postganglionic fiber goes to Muscarinic Ach receptor
(CN, S2-S4)
Postganglionic Parasymp. Axon transmitters
- ACh
- VIP
- NO
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Short Preganglionic fiber
- Long Postganglionic fiber
- Postggl. use NE (usually)
- Preggl. can go straight to adrenal gland causing E (NE) release
(T1-L2)
What do both Parasymp. & Symp. use for signaling from Preggl. to Ggl?
ACh
What receptor promotes Renin secretion in the Kidney?
B1-AR
Blood Volume
5.5 L
Hematocrit
45%
Hemoglobin Conc.
120 - 160 g/L
Blood H+ conc.
10^-7.4
I.C H+ conc.
10^-7.2
Blood plasma protein conc.
7 g/dl
Blood Oncotic Pressure
28 mmHg
Conduction speed of Nerves
- A: up to 120 m/s
- B: 3 - 15 m/s
- C: 0.5 - 2 m/s (unmyelinated)