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Fluid/Acid/Base And Reproductive Flashcards

1
Q

What does average fluid intake and output add up to in a normal person?

A

About 2500 mL/day

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2
Q

Are fluid intake and output usually similar?

A

Yes, they are the same or almost the same

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3
Q

In what percentages is fluid taken in/gained in the body?

A

60% in drink
30% in food
10% as a byproduct of cellular metabolism

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4
Q

In what percentages/routes is water taken out of the body?

A

60% as urine
4% in feces
8% in obvious sweat
28% insensible by way of skin or breathing out

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5
Q

How does the thirst mechanism work if plasma osmolarity is high? (Both routes)

A

It will be triggered by saliva decrease (dry mouth) and also by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sensing high sodium
The hypothalamic thirst center will be activated
You will feel thirsty and drink

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6
Q

What actually solves the problem when the thirst mechanism is activated?

A

Water absorption in the intestines decreases plasma osmolarity

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7
Q

How does the thirst mechanism work if plasma volume is low, like in cases of blood loss?

A

BP decreases
Renin is produced
Angiotensin II is produced which activates the hypothalamic thirst center

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8
Q

How does water output work if plasma osmolarity is high?

A

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sense high osmolarity
Posterior pituitary releases ADH
Collecting ducts insert aquaporins to increase water retention
Plasma osmolarity decreases and so does urine volume

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9
Q

How does water output work when plasma volume is low, such as in cases of intense bleeding?

A

Blood pressure goes down
Baroreceptors are less stimulated
Posterior pituitary is stimulated to release ADH, which inserts aquaporins in collecting duct to increase water retention

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10
Q

What are the effects of dehydration on osmolarity and osmotic pressure?

A

Higher osmolarity and higher osmotic pressure in the extracellular space

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11
Q

What effect does dehydration have on cells?

A

It causes them to shrink

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12
Q

What are some possible symptoms/outcomes of dehydration?

A

Mental confusion, dry flushed skin, and possible hypovolemic shock

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13
Q

What is hypotonic hydration?

A

Taking in too much water

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14
Q

What happens cellularly in hypotonic hydration?

A

Less salt in extracellular fluid, so osmotic pressure decreases and cells swell/burst

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15
Q

What are five possible causes of edema?

A 
High blood pressure
Venous valve damage 
Tissue damage/infection
Lymph duct damage 
Severe malnutrition
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16
Q

In what way does high blood pressure cause edema?

A

It increases the hydrostatic pressure of the capillary, pushing fluid out into the interstitial space

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17
Q

How does venous valve damage cause edema?

A

It causes buildup of blood in the capillary, increasing the hydrostatic pressure of the capillary and pushing fluid into the tissue

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18
Q

How does tissue damage/infection cause edema?

A

It causes vasodilation, so solutes like protein and white blood cells enter the interstitial space, increasing the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid and pulling water towards it

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19
Q

How does damage to the lymph duct cause edema?

A

It causes increased osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid, because more proteins and solutes are present in the IF, pulling fluids from the capillary towards it

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20
Q

How does severe malnutrition cause edema?

A

There are less proteins in the capillary, so it decreases osmotic pressure of the capillary, meaning more fluid will remain in the interstitial space

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21
Q

Which ion contributes most to plasma osmolarity?

A

Sodium

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22
Q

Which ion is most responsible for drawing fluid from one compartment to another?

A

Sodium

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23
Q

What effect does aldosterone have on sodium reabsorption?

A

It causes increased sodium reabsorption at the collecting duct, decreasing urine sodium levels and total urine levels

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24
Q

What stimulates ANP?

A

High blood pressure, sensed in the atria of the heart

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25
What is the effect of ANP?
Sodium release into collecting duct, so blood pressure and blood volume decrease
26
What does high potassium do to resting membrane potential?
It makes it more positive, making it easier for an action potential to cause depolarization
27
What does low potassium do to resting membrane potential?
It makes it more negative, making it harder for the membrane to depolarize
28
How is potassium involved in pH balance?
If potassium is off balance, it will try to correct but will just exchange itself for hydrogen ions, changing pH
29
How is potassium involved in sodium balance?
Potassium and sodium like to just change places with one another, so trying to change potassium levels will likely have an effect on sodium levels too
30
Which hormone mainly regulates calcium balance?
PTH
31
In what ways does PTH work to increase blood calcium?
It tells the osteoclasts to release calcium from the bones It tells the kidneys to reabsorb more calcium And it tells the intestines to activate vitamin D to absorb more calcium
32
What hormone works to regulate calcium when its very off balance?
Calcitonin
33
What happens to chloride ions when pH is normal?
Most of it gets reabsorbed at the kidneys
34
How do chloride ions balance themselves?
They switch places with bicarbonate ions at the red blood cell
35
Respiratory acidosis
Problem: high CO2 in blood Causes: inhibited breathing in some way
36
Metabolic acidosis
Problem: low bicarbonate levels in the blood/body Causes: anything that causes bicarbonate to be lost, such as diarrhea
37
Respiratory alkalosis
Problem: low CO2 in the blood Causes: hyperventilation
38
Metabolic alkalosis
Problem: high bicarbonate ion levels Causes: loss of acid, such as vomiting a lot
39
How will respiratory acidosis be compensated?
Increased bicarbonate ions present
40
How will metabolic acidosis be compensated for?
Breathing more to decrease CO2 in the blood
41
How will respiratory alkalosis be compensated?
Decrease of bicarbonate ions
42
How will metabolic alkalosis be compensated?
Decreased breathing rate to increase blood CO2
43
Key features of mitosis
DNA replicates once, cells divide once, forms all body cells that are not reproductive, forms two diploid cells with 46 chromosomes
44
Meiosis key features
DNA replicates once, cells divide twice, forms gametes (haploid cells with 23 chromosomes)
45
Spermatogenesis
Creates sperm cells, produces four daughter haploid cells
46
Oogenesis
Creation of egg cells, creates one large egg cell and three polar bodies
47
What three events are associated with meiosis I?
LH surge Ovulation Corpus luteum formation
48
What main event is associated with meiosis II?
Fertilization
49
Describe oocyte cell division
When the primary oocyte divides, it becomes a large secondary oocyte and a small polar body. During Meiosis II, that polar body will divide again, and another polar body will also divide off the secondary oocyte.
50
Which parents determines the sex of the child and why?
The father, because he has both the X and Y pattern on his 23rd chromosome
51
Primary male sex organ
Testes (specifically seminiferous tubule)
52
Primary female sex organ
Ovary
53
Epididymis tissue and function
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium | Storage and maturation of sperm cells, connects testes to ductus deferens
54
Ductus deferens tissue type
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue
55
Ejaculatory duct tissue type
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
56
Which three glands secrete into the ejaculatory duct?
Prostate gland Seminal vesicles Bulbourethral gland
57
What does the prostate gland secrete?
Milky alkaline substance
58
What does the seminal vesicle secrete?
Prostaglandins and seminal fluids for nourishing sperm
59
What does the bulbourethral gland secrete?
Mucous right before ejaculation
60
What does the corpus cavernosa do?
Maintain the erection
61
What is the function of the corpus spongiosum?
It is erectile tissue that prevents closing of urethra
62
Tissue type of the scrotum
Stratified squamous epithelium
63
Where does egg fertilization usually happen?
Ampulla of the uterine tubes
64
What are the sections of the uterine tube? (From ovary to uterus)
Infundibulum Ampulla Isthmus
65
Vagina tissue type
Smooth muscle, stratified squamous epithelium
66
Cervix tissue type
Smooth muscle, dense connective tissue, columnar epithelium
67
Uterus tissue type
Smooth muscle, peritoneum, simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria
68
Uterine tube tissue type
Peritoneum, smooth muscle, ciliated simple columnar epithelium
69
Ovary tissue type
Visceral peritoneum, simple cuboidal epithelium, dense connective tissue
70
What part of the uterus changes with the menstrual cycle?
Endometrium
71
What is a follicle?
Cells surrounding and supporting the oocyte
72
What characterizes a primary follicle?
One or two layers of cuboidal cells that surround the oocyte
73
What characterizes a secondary follicle?
Fluid filled vesicles are found
74
What characterizes a tertiary or mature follicle?
Fluid vesicles creating a single antrum
75
What is the zona pelucida?
Clear material that separates oocyte and follicular cells
76
What is the theca externa?
Connective outer layer that merges with outer layer of ovary during ovulation
77
What is the corona radiata?
The follicular cells after ovulation
78
What is the corpus luteum?
The glandular structure that follicle turns into following ovulation?
79
If pregnancy occurs, what does the corpus luteum do?
Secretes hormones for about three months until placenta takes over
80
If pregnancy does not occur, what does the corpus luteum do?
Secretes hormones for 10-12 days, then becomes the corpus albicans
81
What is the corpus albicans?
A white structure that is the leftover part of the non-functional corpus luteum
82
What is necessary for phase one of male sexual arousal to occur?
Relaxation and calm, because phase one is a parasympathetic nervous system function
83
What happens in phase one of male sexual arousal?
Nitrous oxide releases, causing vasodilation in the penis (erection)
84
What structures are involved in an erection and how?
Corposa cavernosa becomes engorged with blood, and presses on veins so blood cannot leave The corpus spongiosum also becomes erect and prevents the urethra from pinching closed
85
What is phase II of male sexual arousal?
The sympathetic nervous system phase, when ejaculation happens
86
What are some things involved in phase II of male arousal?
Bladder sphincters constrict Glands secrete fluid Semen ejaculated
87
What is one of the main causes of erectile dysfunction and why?
Stress, because the parasympathetic NS is suppressed when a person is stressed
88
What happens in cases of premature ejaculation?
SNS turns on too quickly, so other necessary steps not able to happen first
89
What is phase one of female sexual arousal? How is it different from males?
Parasympathetic phase | It is not necessary for this phase to happen for pregnancy to occur
90
What happens bodily in phase one of female sexual arousal?
Erectile tissue stimulated Vaginal mucosa secretes lubricant Breast tissue becomes engorged
91
What is phase II of female sexual arousal?
Sympathetic NS response, with typical symptoms (increased breathing, heart rate, dilated pupils), as well as orgasm and reverse peristalsis in the uterus to draw sperm in
92
What are the phases of the ovarian cycle?
Follicular phase and luteal phase
93
How long is the follicular phase?
Typically 14 days, but varies from woman to woman
94
What happens in the follicular phase?
The follicle grows/matures until its ready for ovulation
95
In a normal ovarian cycle, when does ovulation occur?
Day 14
96
How long is the luteal phase?
Always 14 days, no matter how long/short the follicular phase was
97
What happens in the luteal phase?
Corpus luteum forms from the rest of the follicle and secretes progesterone and estrogen
98
What events accompany ovulation?
A surge of luteinizing hormone and formation of the corpus luteum. This is meiosis I
99
Where does the corpus luteum live?
It stays in the ovary
100
What does the corpus luteum do if the egg results in pregnancy?
If fertilization occurs, it continues to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) for three months to support the pregnancy until the placenta can take over
101
What happens to the corpus luteum if no pregnancy occurs?
It secretes hormones for 10-12 days, then degenerates into the corpus albicans (white body) that will disappear in a few months or years
102
What are the phases of the uterine cycle (with approximate days)?
Menstrual days: days 1-5 or so Proliferative days: days 6-14 Secretory days: days 15-28 (the post ovulatory days)
103
What happens to the thickness of the endometrium during the uterine cycle?
During the menstrual days, it sloughs off all the way down to the basal layer, and then builds itself back up until the next period
104
Describe the chain of evens leading to follicle growth in the ovary
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary Both hormones are gonadotropins that target the ovary to make the follicle grow/mature
105
What is secreted by the follicle?
Estrogen
106
What happens when the follicle secretes low levels of estrogen?
Estrogen levels inhibit the hypothalamus from releasing too much GnRH to prevent the LH surge from happening too early. Negative feedback mechanism
107
What happens when the level of estrogen secreted by the follicle is sufficiently built up?
Estrogen levels stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete more GnRH, causing the LH surge that causes meiosis I, ovulation, and corpus luteum formation
108
How does the LH surge end?
The corpus luteum secretes inhibin, which ends the feedback loop
109
What is one hormonal mechanism for birth control and how does it work?
Progesterone, which creates a cervical plug to prevent sperm entry, and inhibits the release of gonadotropin
110
How is menopause defined?
Cessation of menstrual cycle for a year
111
What hormone level decreases during menopause?
Estrogen
112
What are some other outcomes of lowered estrogen levels?
Decreased bone density, mood swings, and hot flashes
113
What does the rete testes do?
Takes sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis

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