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A&P > Fluid/Acid/Base And Reproductive > Flashcards

Fluid/Acid/Base And Reproductive Flashcards

1
Q

What does average fluid intake and output add up to in a normal person?

A

About 2500 mL/day

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2
Q

Are fluid intake and output usually similar?

A

Yes, they are the same or almost the same

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3
Q

In what percentages is fluid taken in/gained in the body?

A

60% in drink
30% in food
10% as a byproduct of cellular metabolism

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4
Q

In what percentages/routes is water taken out of the body?

A

60% as urine
4% in feces
8% in obvious sweat
28% insensible by way of skin or breathing out

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5
Q

How does the thirst mechanism work if plasma osmolarity is high? (Both routes)

A

It will be triggered by saliva decrease (dry mouth) and also by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sensing high sodium
The hypothalamic thirst center will be activated
You will feel thirsty and drink

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6
Q

What actually solves the problem when the thirst mechanism is activated?

A

Water absorption in the intestines decreases plasma osmolarity

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7
Q

How does the thirst mechanism work if plasma volume is low, like in cases of blood loss?

A

BP decreases
Renin is produced
Angiotensin II is produced which activates the hypothalamic thirst center

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8
Q

How does water output work if plasma osmolarity is high?

A

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sense high osmolarity
Posterior pituitary releases ADH
Collecting ducts insert aquaporins to increase water retention
Plasma osmolarity decreases and so does urine volume

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9
Q

How does water output work when plasma volume is low, such as in cases of intense bleeding?

A

Blood pressure goes down
Baroreceptors are less stimulated
Posterior pituitary is stimulated to release ADH, which inserts aquaporins in collecting duct to increase water retention

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10
Q

What are the effects of dehydration on osmolarity and osmotic pressure?

A

Higher osmolarity and higher osmotic pressure in the extracellular space

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11
Q

What effect does dehydration have on cells?

A

It causes them to shrink

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12
Q

What are some possible symptoms/outcomes of dehydration?

A

Mental confusion, dry flushed skin, and possible hypovolemic shock

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13
Q

What is hypotonic hydration?

A

Taking in too much water

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14
Q

What happens cellularly in hypotonic hydration?

A

Less salt in extracellular fluid, so osmotic pressure decreases and cells swell/burst

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15
Q

What are five possible causes of edema?

A 
High blood pressure
Venous valve damage 
Tissue damage/infection
Lymph duct damage 
Severe malnutrition
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16
Q

In what way does high blood pressure cause edema?

A

It increases the hydrostatic pressure of the capillary, pushing fluid out into the interstitial space

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17
Q

How does venous valve damage cause edema?

A

It causes buildup of blood in the capillary, increasing the hydrostatic pressure of the capillary and pushing fluid into the tissue

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18
Q

How does tissue damage/infection cause edema?

A

It causes vasodilation, so solutes like protein and white blood cells enter the interstitial space, increasing the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid and pulling water towards it

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19
Q

How does damage to the lymph duct cause edema?

A

It causes increased osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid, because more proteins and solutes are present in the IF, pulling fluids from the capillary towards it

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20
Q

How does severe malnutrition cause edema?

A

There are less proteins in the capillary, so it decreases osmotic pressure of the capillary, meaning more fluid will remain in the interstitial space

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21
Q

Which ion contributes most to plasma osmolarity?

A

Sodium

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22
Q

Which ion is most responsible for drawing fluid from one compartment to another?

A

Sodium

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23
Q

What effect does aldosterone have on sodium reabsorption?

A

It causes increased sodium reabsorption at the collecting duct, decreasing urine sodium levels and total urine levels

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24
Q

What stimulates ANP?

A

High blood pressure, sensed in the atria of the heart

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25
Q

What is the effect of ANP?

A

Sodium release into collecting duct, so blood pressure and blood volume decrease

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26
Q

What does high potassium do to resting membrane potential?

A

It makes it more positive, making it easier for an action potential to cause depolarization

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27
Q

What does low potassium do to resting membrane potential?

A

It makes it more negative, making it harder for the membrane to depolarize

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28
Q

How is potassium involved in pH balance?

A

If potassium is off balance, it will try to correct but will just exchange itself for hydrogen ions, changing pH

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29
Q

How is potassium involved in sodium balance?

A

Potassium and sodium like to just change places with one another, so trying to change potassium levels will likely have an effect on sodium levels too

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30
Q

Which hormone mainly regulates calcium balance?

A

PTH

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31
Q

In what ways does PTH work to increase blood calcium?

A

It tells the osteoclasts to release calcium from the bones
It tells the kidneys to reabsorb more calcium
And it tells the intestines to activate vitamin D to absorb more calcium

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32
Q

What hormone works to regulate calcium when its very off balance?

A

Calcitonin

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33
Q

What happens to chloride ions when pH is normal?

A

Most of it gets reabsorbed at the kidneys

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34
Q

How do chloride ions balance themselves?

A

They switch places with bicarbonate ions at the red blood cell

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35
Q

Respiratory acidosis

A

Problem: high CO2 in blood
Causes: inhibited breathing in some way

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36
Q

Metabolic acidosis

A

Problem: low bicarbonate levels in the blood/body
Causes: anything that causes bicarbonate to be lost, such as diarrhea

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37
Q

Respiratory alkalosis

A

Problem: low CO2 in the blood
Causes: hyperventilation

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38
Q

Metabolic alkalosis

A

Problem: high bicarbonate ion levels
Causes: loss of acid, such as vomiting a lot

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39
Q

How will respiratory acidosis be compensated?

A

Increased bicarbonate ions present

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40
Q

How will metabolic acidosis be compensated for?

A

Breathing more to decrease CO2 in the blood

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41
Q

How will respiratory alkalosis be compensated?

A

Decrease of bicarbonate ions

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42
Q

How will metabolic alkalosis be compensated?

A

Decreased breathing rate to increase blood CO2

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43
Q

Key features of mitosis

A

DNA replicates once, cells divide once, forms all body cells that are not reproductive, forms two diploid cells with 46 chromosomes

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44
Q

Meiosis key features

A

DNA replicates once, cells divide twice, forms gametes (haploid cells with 23 chromosomes)

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45
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Creates sperm cells, produces four daughter haploid cells

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46
Q

Oogenesis

A

Creation of egg cells, creates one large egg cell and three polar bodies

47
Q

What three events are associated with meiosis I?

A

LH surge
Ovulation
Corpus luteum formation

48
Q

What main event is associated with meiosis II?

A

Fertilization

49
Q

Describe oocyte cell division

A

When the primary oocyte divides, it becomes a large secondary oocyte and a small polar body. During Meiosis II, that polar body will divide again, and another polar body will also divide off the secondary oocyte.

50
Q

Which parents determines the sex of the child and why?

A

The father, because he has both the X and Y pattern on his 23rd chromosome

51
Q

Primary male sex organ

A

Testes (specifically seminiferous tubule)

52
Q

Primary female sex organ

A

Ovary

53
Q

Epididymis tissue and function

A

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Storage and maturation of sperm cells, connects testes to ductus deferens

54
Q

Ductus deferens tissue type

A

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue

55
Q

Ejaculatory duct tissue type

A

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

56
Q

Which three glands secrete into the ejaculatory duct?

A

Prostate gland
Seminal vesicles
Bulbourethral gland

57
Q

What does the prostate gland secrete?

A

Milky alkaline substance

58
Q

What does the seminal vesicle secrete?

A

Prostaglandins and seminal fluids for nourishing sperm

59
Q

What does the bulbourethral gland secrete?

A

Mucous right before ejaculation

60
Q

What does the corpus cavernosa do?

A

Maintain the erection

61
Q

What is the function of the corpus spongiosum?

A

It is erectile tissue that prevents closing of urethra

62
Q

Tissue type of the scrotum

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

63
Q

Where does egg fertilization usually happen?

A

Ampulla of the uterine tubes

64
Q

What are the sections of the uterine tube? (From ovary to uterus)

A

Infundibulum
Ampulla
Isthmus

65
Q

Vagina tissue type

A

Smooth muscle, stratified squamous epithelium

66
Q

Cervix tissue type

A

Smooth muscle, dense connective tissue, columnar epithelium

67
Q

Uterus tissue type

A

Smooth muscle, peritoneum, simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria

68
Q

Uterine tube tissue type

A

Peritoneum, smooth muscle, ciliated simple columnar epithelium

69
Q

Ovary tissue type

A

Visceral peritoneum, simple cuboidal epithelium, dense connective tissue

70
Q

What part of the uterus changes with the menstrual cycle?

A

Endometrium

71
Q

What is a follicle?

A

Cells surrounding and supporting the oocyte

72
Q

What characterizes a primary follicle?

A

One or two layers of cuboidal cells that surround the oocyte

73
Q

What characterizes a secondary follicle?

A

Fluid filled vesicles are found

74
Q

What characterizes a tertiary or mature follicle?

A

Fluid vesicles creating a single antrum

75
Q

What is the zona pelucida?

A

Clear material that separates oocyte and follicular cells

76
Q

What is the theca externa?

A

Connective outer layer that merges with outer layer of ovary during ovulation

77
Q

What is the corona radiata?

A

The follicular cells after ovulation

78
Q

What is the corpus luteum?

A

The glandular structure that follicle turns into following ovulation?

79
Q

If pregnancy occurs, what does the corpus luteum do?

A

Secretes hormones for about three months until placenta takes over

80
Q

If pregnancy does not occur, what does the corpus luteum do?

A

Secretes hormones for 10-12 days, then becomes the corpus albicans

81
Q

What is the corpus albicans?

A

A white structure that is the leftover part of the non-functional corpus luteum

82
Q

What is necessary for phase one of male sexual arousal to occur?

A

Relaxation and calm, because phase one is a parasympathetic nervous system function

83
Q

What happens in phase one of male sexual arousal?

A

Nitrous oxide releases, causing vasodilation in the penis (erection)

84
Q

What structures are involved in an erection and how?

A

Corposa cavernosa becomes engorged with blood, and presses on veins so blood cannot leave
The corpus spongiosum also becomes erect and prevents the urethra from pinching closed

85
Q

What is phase II of male sexual arousal?

A

The sympathetic nervous system phase, when ejaculation happens

86
Q

What are some things involved in phase II of male arousal?

A

Bladder sphincters constrict
Glands secrete fluid
Semen ejaculated

87
Q

What is one of the main causes of erectile dysfunction and why?

A

Stress, because the parasympathetic NS is suppressed when a person is stressed

88
Q

What happens in cases of premature ejaculation?

A

SNS turns on too quickly, so other necessary steps not able to happen first

89
Q

What is phase one of female sexual arousal? How is it different from males?

A

Parasympathetic phase

It is not necessary for this phase to happen for pregnancy to occur

90
Q

What happens bodily in phase one of female sexual arousal?

A

Erectile tissue stimulated
Vaginal mucosa secretes lubricant
Breast tissue becomes engorged

91
Q

What is phase II of female sexual arousal?

A

Sympathetic NS response, with typical symptoms (increased breathing, heart rate, dilated pupils), as well as orgasm and reverse peristalsis in the uterus to draw sperm in

92
Q

What are the phases of the ovarian cycle?

A

Follicular phase and luteal phase

93
Q

How long is the follicular phase?

A

Typically 14 days, but varies from woman to woman

94
Q

What happens in the follicular phase?

A

The follicle grows/matures until its ready for ovulation

95
Q

In a normal ovarian cycle, when does ovulation occur?

A

Day 14

96
Q

How long is the luteal phase?

A

Always 14 days, no matter how long/short the follicular phase was

97
Q

What happens in the luteal phase?

A

Corpus luteum forms from the rest of the follicle and secretes progesterone and estrogen

98
Q

What events accompany ovulation?

A

A surge of luteinizing hormone and formation of the corpus luteum. This is meiosis I

99
Q

Where does the corpus luteum live?

A

It stays in the ovary

100
Q

What does the corpus luteum do if the egg results in pregnancy?

A

If fertilization occurs, it continues to secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone) for three months to support the pregnancy until the placenta can take over

101
Q

What happens to the corpus luteum if no pregnancy occurs?

A

It secretes hormones for 10-12 days, then degenerates into the corpus albicans (white body) that will disappear in a few months or years

102
Q

What are the phases of the uterine cycle (with approximate days)?

A

Menstrual days: days 1-5 or so
Proliferative days: days 6-14
Secretory days: days 15-28 (the post ovulatory days)

103
Q

What happens to the thickness of the endometrium during the uterine cycle?

A

During the menstrual days, it sloughs off all the way down to the basal layer, and then builds itself back up until the next period

104
Q

Describe the chain of evens leading to follicle growth in the ovary

A

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary
Both hormones are gonadotropins that target the ovary to make the follicle grow/mature

105
Q

What is secreted by the follicle?

A

Estrogen

106
Q

What happens when the follicle secretes low levels of estrogen?

A

Estrogen levels inhibit the hypothalamus from releasing too much GnRH to prevent the LH surge from happening too early. Negative feedback mechanism

107
Q

What happens when the level of estrogen secreted by the follicle is sufficiently built up?

A

Estrogen levels stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete more GnRH, causing the LH surge that causes meiosis I, ovulation, and corpus luteum formation

108
Q

How does the LH surge end?

A

The corpus luteum secretes inhibin, which ends the feedback loop

109
Q

What is one hormonal mechanism for birth control and how does it work?

A

Progesterone, which creates a cervical plug to prevent sperm entry, and inhibits the release of gonadotropin

110
Q

How is menopause defined?

A

Cessation of menstrual cycle for a year

111
Q

What hormone level decreases during menopause?

A

Estrogen

112
Q

What are some other outcomes of lowered estrogen levels?

A

Decreased bone density, mood swings, and hot flashes

113
Q

What does the rete testes do?

A

Takes sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis

A&P (10 decks)

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