Blood Vessels, Blood, and Respiratory System (Part One) Flashcards
(160 cards)
1
Q
Describe the very general flow of blood in the body
A
Heart to arteries to capillaries to veins back to heart
2
Q
What are the three layers of the blood vessel walls? (Inside to outside)
A
Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica adventitia
3
Q
What composes the tunica intima?
A
Endothelium
Basement membrane
Lamina propria
Internal elastic membrane
4
Q
What two things comprise the tunica media?
A
Smooth muscle and an external elastic membrane
5
Q
What is the primary function of the tunica media?
A
Controlling blood vessel diameter
6
Q
What is the tunica externa primarily composed of?
A
Connective tissue
7
Q
Vasoconstriction
A
Blood vessel gets smaller
8
Q
Vasodilation
A
Blood vessel gets larger/more relaxed
9
Q
What is another name for elastic arteries?
A
Conducting arteries
10
Q
What are key features of elastic arteries?
A
Largest arteries, closest to the heart, with the most elastic tissue so they can expand and recoil with the force of heartbeats
11
Q
What is another name for muscular arteries?
A
Distributing arteries
12
Q
What are some key features of distributing arteries?
A
Medium/small arteries that contain more smooth muscle to help the blood go further distances
13
Q
What are some key features of arterioles?
A
Smallest of the artery types, transports blood from arteries to the capillaries
14
Q
List the artery types in order from largest to smallest
A
Elastic or conducting arteries
Muscular or distributing arteries
Arterioles
15
Q
List the types of veins in order from smallest to largest
A
Venules
Small veins
Medium veins
Large veins
16
Q
What do venules and small veins do?
A
Venules drain the capillaries and small veins take venule blood and start conducting it to larger veins
17
Q
What happens to medium and large veins as they get closer to the heart?
A
They get bigger
18
Q
What is the purpose of valves in veins?
A
Pressure gets lower and lower the closer blood gets to the heart, so veins have valves so the blood doesn’t backflow and pool near the capillaries
19
Q
What size veins have valves?
A
Anything larger than 2mm
20
Q
What is the name for blood vessels that specifically serve the tissues of larger arteries and veins?
A
Vasa vasorum
21
Q
What do portal veins do?
A
Take blood from one organ to another organ then back to the heart (instead of just from organ to heart)
22
Q
Where does the hepatic portal vein operate?
A
It goes from the stomach/large intestine to the liver then to the heart via the hepatic vein
23
Q
What tissue types are capillaries composed of?
A
Simple squamous epithelium and a basement membrane
24
Q
What are the three types of capillaries?
A
Continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal
25
What are continuous capillaries like and where are they found?
No gaps between the cells of the vessel, least permeable.
| Found primarily in muscles and nerves
26
What are fenestrated capillaries like and where are they primarily found?
Have some gaps between the cells of the vessel and are fairly permeable
Found primarily in intestines and glomeruli of kidneys
27
What are sinusoidal capillaries like and where are they primarily found?
Very large gaps (fenestrations), most permeable.
| Found mainly in endocrine glands/target organs that have to be able to secrete and receive large molecules
28
How does blood flow when precapillary sphincters are open?
arteriole to metarteriole to arterial capillaries to venous capillaries to the venule
29
How does blood flow when precapillary sphincters are closed?
arteriole to metarteriole to thoroughfare channel to venule (bypasses capillaries completely)
30
What is a vascular anastamosis?
A connection between two vessels that bypasses the capillaries to allow for multiple circulation routes in an area of the body
31
What are some examples of natural vascular anastamoses in the body?
the circle of Willis in the brain and the vessels around joints in the body
32
Define blood flow
volume through a vessel in a given time
33
in what units is blood flow measured?
mL/min
34
Define blood pressure
force per unit area (gradient that drives the movement of blood).
35
in what units is blood pressure measured?
mm/Hg
36
define resistance
pressure that opposes blood flow
37
In what units is resistance measured?
mm/Hg
38
What formula describes the relationship between blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance?
Flow = change in pressure/resistance
39
What are the three main sources of resistance in blood vessels?
vessel length, vessel diameter, and blood viscosity
40
which type of resistance in a vessel is the easiest to change? By what mechanisms?
vessel diameter by vasoconstriction or vasodilation
41
What factors can influence blood viscosity?
RBC count, platelet levels, and hydration/fluid levels
42
In which blood vessels is pressure highest? Lowest?
highest: arteries closest to the heart
lowest: veins closest to the heart
43
How do you calculate mean arterial pressure?
diastolic pressure plus 1/3 of the pulse pressure (systolic minus diastolic)
44
What are three things in the body that aid in venous return of blood?
muscular pumps with valves, respiratory pumps, and vasoconstriction
45
How do muscular pumps work?
as muscles contract, it pushes the blood towards the heart and valves dont allow it to backflow
46
how do respiratory pumps work?
as the lungs and ribs expand outward, it pushes venous blood towards the heart much like a muscular pump does
47
What are the three general types of controls for blood pressure?
```
short term (neural) controls
hormonal (mid-time span) controls
kidneys (longer acting) controls
```
48
what brain region helps to regulate blood pressure? (general and specific)
medulla oblongata: vasomotor center
49
Name and describe the types of neural controls
baroreceptor: pressure receptors in large arteries that sense blood pressure and communicate with the medulla.
chemoreceptors: receptors that sense CO2 levels and pH and communicate with the medulla to change BP accordingly
higher brain centers: SNS activation of BP increase if a person is anxious or scared
50
what does high CO2 do to blood pH?
it makes it more acidic
51
name the hormones that control blood pressure
angiotensin II
ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
epinephrine/norepinephrine
52
angiotensin II
causes vasoconstriction
53
ANP (both functions)
causes vasodilation, but main function is to stimulate kidneys to release more sodium, increasing urination (which will also decrease BP)
54
Epinephrine/norepinephrine
causes vasoconstriction
55
ADH
causes vasodilation, but main function is to target kidneys and increase water retention
56
What is the slowest acting way to control blood pressure?
Controls originating with the kidneys
57
How does a direct mechanism for BP control at the kidneys work?
If BP is high, kidneys naturally filter more blood in a span of time, thus increasing fluid output and lowering/stabilizing blood pressure
58
What is the indirect mechanism for BP control at the kidneys?
Renin-angiotensin mechanism. Kidneys release Renin when BP is low, which stimulates the release of angiotensin II (through hormone cascade), which causes vasoconstiction and aids in ADH production. BP goes up
59
In what units is blood flow velocity measured?
cubic cm/second
60
Where is blood flow velocity slowest?
in the capillaries
61
Where is the TOTAL cross sectional vessel area largest in the body?
in the capillaries
62
What is autoregulation of local blood flow?
Increased blood flow to a specific area of the body depending on need
63
How do metabolic autoregulation mechanisms work?
Blood flow will increase to a certain area if there is an increase in metabolic activity (lactic acid production, excess CO2, nitrous oxide present, or low O2). Arterioles serving that area will dilate.
64
How do myogenic mechanism work to regulate blood pressure when it is high? Low?
(when local BP is elevated) the tunica media will be stretched and correct the problem by vasoconstricting
(When local BP is low) the tunica media feels the lack of stretch and will correct by vasodilating
65
How does angiogenesis help to autoregulate local blood flow?
In areas that get repeated heavy use (think training a specific muscle), the body will make more vessels to serve that area so it has lots of readily available blood flow
66
In what three general ways is local blood flow autoregulated?
metabolic autoregulation, myogenic autoregulation, and angiogenesis
67
Osmotic Pressure
Pulling pressure as refers to the movement of water (water being "pulled" towards a solute)
68
Hydrostatic Pressure
Pushing Pressure of water (example: blood pressure)
69
What will net filtration pressure look like in a healthy individual?
it will be a positive number, with bulk flow going out on the arterial side of the capillary and bulk flow going in at the negative end of the capillary
70
What are the four types of filtration pressures?
osmotic pressure of the capillary
osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid
hydrostatic pressure of the capillary
hydrostatic pressure of the interstitial fluid
71
What is the normal pH of blood?
7.35 to 7.45
72
What are the components of blood?
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
73
Why is blood considered a connective tissue?
It is derived from the embryonic mesoderm (like all other connective tissues) and is composed of living cells in a non-living matrix
74
carbaminohemoglobin
hemoglobin that's carrying carbon dioxide. it carries it on the protein part, not the heme group, giving it this name.
75
hematocytoblast
immature blood cell (stem cell) in the bone marrow
76
polycythemia
elevated RBC levels or a high hematocrit
77
What are the five types of white blood cells?
```
neutrophils
basophils
eosinophils
lymphocytes
monocytes
```
78
leukopenia
low white blood cell count
79
leukemia
cancer of the white blood cells
80
megakaryocyte
“Large nucleus cell” large bone marrow cell that produces thrombocytes
81
What is the composition of plasma and in what percentages?
90% water, 8% proteins, and some nutrients, hormones, CO2, nitrogenous waste, and oxygen
82
What are considered formed elements?
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
83
Where do blood cells originate?
in bone marrow
84
Explain how the shape of red blood cells lend to their function
Biconcave shape allows more space for diffusion of oxygen (lots of space would be wasted if it was a classically round shape)
85
How does the lack of nucleus help with the function of a RBC?
allows for biconcave shape, which allows for oxygen carrying capacity/ability to be maximized
86
Why are there no mitochondria in red blood cells?
if it had mitochondria, it would use up a huge amount of the oxygen it was carrying just to do respiration.
87
how do red blood cells get ATP?
they do glycolysis to make the small amount of needed ATP
88
What allows red blood cells to carry oxygen?
the hemoglobin protein, which has iron groups on it that oxygen can bind to
89
how many oxygen molecules can each hemoglobin protein carry?
four
90
What does spectrin do?
Gives red blood cells their flexibility
91
How do red blood cells die?
after around 120 days, their spectrin stops working and they lose most of their flexibility. They get stuck in the very small capillaries of the spleen and die there
92
what is the structure of hemoglobin?
two alpha protein chains and two beta protein chains, each with a heme group on it
93
hematopoiesis
formation of blood cells
94
what gives rise to blood cells?
hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells) give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
95
reticulocyte
young red blood cell that still has ribosomes on it (usually 1-2% of RBCs)
96
what is the importance of a reticulocyte count?
if one has too many or too few reticulocytes, it could cause a host of issues (polycythemia, anemia, etc)
97
What will too few red blood cells cause?
hypoxia
98
what will too many red blood cells cause?
high blood viscosity
99
what is the main hormone that stimulates RBC production?
erythropoietin (epo)
100
What hormone enhances epo?
testosterone
101
where is epo released and what does it target?
released by the kidneys and targets the bone marrow
102
genetically engineered epo
athletes sometimes use genetically engineered epo to increase RBC count and oxygen carrying capacity, but it also can increase blood viscosity and put them at risk for clots
103
list some causes of anemia
low RBC count, low hemoglobin levels, or abnormal blood cells or hemoglobin as in the case of sickle cell
104
granulocytes
neutrophil
basophil
eosinophils
105
List the types of white blood cells from most common to least common
```
Neutrophil
Lymphocyte
Monocytes
Eosinophil
Basophil
```
106
Granulocyte characteristics
Lobed nuclei and granules that contain acids, bases, or neutral substances
107
Types of granulocytes
Basophils
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
108
Basophils
Contain blue granules, basic loving, contain histamines that cause vasodilation in immune responses
109
Eosinophils
Red granules, acid loving, bi-lobed nuclei. Protect against parasitic worms by injecting acid in them when encountered
110
Neutrophils
Most common granulocyte, pH neutral. Phagocytize bacteria
111
Agranulocyte characteristics and names
Large, non-lobed nuclei
| Monocytes and lymphocytes
112
Describe monocytes and how they do what they do
Largest WBC with a U shaped nucleus
Must leave bloodstream to become macrophages (big eaters) so they take longer to reach infection site. But when they get there, they can phagocytize a lot of bacteria at once
113
Lymphocytes
Small WBCs that give rise to B and T cells for immune responses
114
What chemicals stimulate/assist in leukopoiesis
Stimulated by colony stimulating factor and assisted by interleukin (communicates between white blood cells)
115
What are the main functions of the respiratory system?
```
Gas exchange (supply oxygen and remove CO2)
Regulate blood pH
Voice production
Sense of smell
Microbe protection
```
116
Ventilation
The act of breathing air in and out
117
Respiration
Gas exchange between air and blood or between blood and body tissues
118
How does respiration differ from cellular respiration?
Respiration is different from cellular respiration because it focuses solely on the exchange of the gases, while cellular respiration functions to create energy that can be used by body cells. They are the same in that oxygen is part of the input and CO2 is part of the output, and they are the only two gases really involved in the process.
119
What are the four processes involved in respiration?
Pulmonary ventilation: air into and out of the lungs
External respiration: gas exchange between lungs and blood
Transport: oxygen and CO2 moving through the blood
Internal respiration: exchange of oxygen and CO2 between blood and tissues
120
Trace a molecule of oxygen through the respiratory system
```
External nares
Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharyx, laryngopharynx)
Larynx
Trachea
Primary bronchi
Secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
Respiratory membrane
Blood
```
121
Tissues: external nares
Stratified squamous epithelium
122
Nasopharynx tissues
Stratified squamous and pseudostratified columnar epithelium
123
Oropharynx
Stratified squamous epithelium
124
Laryngopharynx tissue
Stratified squamous epithelium
125
Larynx tissue
Stratified squamous epithelium, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, elastic cartilage
126
Trachea tissue
Hyaline cartilage, smooth muscle, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, dense regular connective tissue
127
Primary bronchi tissue
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage
128
Secondary bronchi tissue
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage
129
Tertiary bronchi tissues
Smooth muscle, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage
130
Bronchiole tissue
Smooth muscle, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, which becomes cubiodal as they get smaller
131
Terminal bronchiole tissue
Smooth muscle and cuboidal epithelium
132
Respiratory bronchiole tissue
Smooth muscle, ciliated cuboidal epithelium, collagenous and elastic tissue
133
Alveolar duct tissue
Smooth muscle, cuboidal epithelium, collagenous and elastic tissues
134
Alveoli tissues
Simple squamous epithelium, type II cells, macrophages
135
Respiratory membrane
Simple squamous epithelium
136
In what four ways (with what organs) is voice controlled?
Pitch: length and tension on vocal cords
Loudness: air in lungs
Whisper: just air, vocal cords not used
Shape of sounds: tongue, lips, pharynx muscles
137
How does epithelial type change as bronchi/bronchioles branch?
Epithelium changes from pseudostratified columnar to regular columnar to cuboidal epithelium
138
How does cartilage change as bronchi branch?
Cartilage gets less as they branch, and in the bronchioles there is no cartilage
139
How does smooth muscle presence change as bronchi/bronchioles branch?
The amount of smooth muscle increases as they branch
140
What three cell types are found in the alveoli?
Type I cells, type II cells, and alveolar macrophages
141
Type I cells of the alveoli
Simple squamous epithelium
142
Type II alveolar cells
Secrete surfactant
143
Alveolar macrophages
Immune cells in alveoli
144
Describe the locations of pleural membranes
The visceral pleura adheres to the lung directly, and the parietal pleura adheres to the thorax wall. The pleural space with fluid is between them to cut down on friction
145
How do pleura aid in ventilation?
When rib cage expands/pulls upward during inspiration, it pulls on the pleura as well, pulling the lungs open more
146
What three brain regions regulate breathing?
Ventral respiratory group, dorsal respiratory group, and pontine respiratory center
147
Ventral respiratory group: location and function
Location: medulla oblongata
Function: directly outputs to respiratory muscles (external intercostals and diaphragm) and generates breathing rhythm
148
What can suppress the ventral respiratory group?
Alcohol and morphine
149
Dorsal respiratory group: location and function
Location: medulla oblongata
Function: integrates information from stretch receptors and chemoreceptors to adjust what the VRG is doing
150
Pontine respiratory center: location and function
Location: pons
Function: modifies VRG for smoother transition between inspiration and expiration
151
How do chemical receptors influence rate and depth of breathing?
high CO2 will make blood more acidic, and more breathing will be stimulated to try to increase O2 levels. Also if there’s very low O2, more breathing will be stimulated.
152
How do joint muscle receptors influence respiration?
More movement = more breathing
153
How does the hypothalamus influence breathing rate and depth?
Pain and emotions can influence breathing
154
How do stretch receptors influence rate and depth of breathing?
if you breathe in too much, the pleurae stretch and you are forced to exhale *protective response, not normal*
155
How can higher brain centers influence rate and depth of breathing?
The cortex can make voluntary choices about breathing
156
How do irritant receptors influence breathing?
Irritants can make you cough or sneeze, changing breathing
157
What is a primary cause of hypertension?
Atherosclerosis
158
What is a secondary cause of hypertension?
Kidney or endocrine disorders
159
Give three examples of portal vessels
Hepatic portal vessel (stomach/intestines to liver)
Placenta (from mom to placenta to baby to placenta back to mom)
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal (hypothalamus and pituitary gland)
160
How many red blood cells does the body produce in what time frame?
2 million cells per second
