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A&P > Blood Vessels, Blood, and Respiratory System (Part One) > Flashcards

Blood Vessels, Blood, and Respiratory System (Part One) Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the very general flow of blood in the body

A

Heart to arteries to capillaries to veins back to heart

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2
Q

What are the three layers of the blood vessel walls? (Inside to outside)

A

Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica adventitia

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3
Q

What composes the tunica intima?

A

Endothelium
Basement membrane
Lamina propria
Internal elastic membrane

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4
Q

What two things comprise the tunica media?

A

Smooth muscle and an external elastic membrane

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5
Q

What is the primary function of the tunica media?

A

Controlling blood vessel diameter

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6
Q

What is the tunica externa primarily composed of?

A

Connective tissue

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7
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

Blood vessel gets smaller

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8
Q

Vasodilation

A

Blood vessel gets larger/more relaxed

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9
Q

What is another name for elastic arteries?

A

Conducting arteries

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10
Q

What are key features of elastic arteries?

A

Largest arteries, closest to the heart, with the most elastic tissue so they can expand and recoil with the force of heartbeats

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11
Q

What is another name for muscular arteries?

A

Distributing arteries

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12
Q

What are some key features of distributing arteries?

A

Medium/small arteries that contain more smooth muscle to help the blood go further distances

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13
Q

What are some key features of arterioles?

A

Smallest of the artery types, transports blood from arteries to the capillaries

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14
Q

List the artery types in order from largest to smallest

A

Elastic or conducting arteries
Muscular or distributing arteries
Arterioles

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15
Q

List the types of veins in order from smallest to largest

A

Venules
Small veins
Medium veins
Large veins

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16
Q

What do venules and small veins do?

A

Venules drain the capillaries and small veins take venule blood and start conducting it to larger veins

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17
Q

What happens to medium and large veins as they get closer to the heart?

A

They get bigger

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18
Q

What is the purpose of valves in veins?

A

Pressure gets lower and lower the closer blood gets to the heart, so veins have valves so the blood doesn’t backflow and pool near the capillaries

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19
Q

What size veins have valves?

A

Anything larger than 2mm

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20
Q

What is the name for blood vessels that specifically serve the tissues of larger arteries and veins?

A

Vasa vasorum

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21
Q

What do portal veins do?

A

Take blood from one organ to another organ then back to the heart (instead of just from organ to heart)

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22
Q

Where does the hepatic portal vein operate?

A

It goes from the stomach/large intestine to the liver then to the heart via the hepatic vein

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23
Q

What tissue types are capillaries composed of?

A

Simple squamous epithelium and a basement membrane

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24
Q

What are the three types of capillaries?

A

Continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal

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25
Q

What are continuous capillaries like and where are they found?

A

No gaps between the cells of the vessel, least permeable.

Found primarily in muscles and nerves

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26
Q

What are fenestrated capillaries like and where are they primarily found?

A

Have some gaps between the cells of the vessel and are fairly permeable
Found primarily in intestines and glomeruli of kidneys

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27
Q

What are sinusoidal capillaries like and where are they primarily found?

A

Very large gaps (fenestrations), most permeable.

Found mainly in endocrine glands/target organs that have to be able to secrete and receive large molecules

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28
Q

How does blood flow when precapillary sphincters are open?

A

arteriole to metarteriole to arterial capillaries to venous capillaries to the venule

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29
Q

How does blood flow when precapillary sphincters are closed?

A

arteriole to metarteriole to thoroughfare channel to venule (bypasses capillaries completely)

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30
Q

What is a vascular anastamosis?

A

A connection between two vessels that bypasses the capillaries to allow for multiple circulation routes in an area of the body

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31
Q

What are some examples of natural vascular anastamoses in the body?

A

the circle of Willis in the brain and the vessels around joints in the body

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32
Q

Define blood flow

A

volume through a vessel in a given time

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33
Q

in what units is blood flow measured?

A

mL/min

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34
Q

Define blood pressure

A

force per unit area (gradient that drives the movement of blood).

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35
Q

in what units is blood pressure measured?

A

mm/Hg

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36
Q

define resistance

A

pressure that opposes blood flow

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37
Q

In what units is resistance measured?

A

mm/Hg

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38
Q

What formula describes the relationship between blood flow, blood pressure, and resistance?

A

Flow = change in pressure/resistance

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39
Q

What are the three main sources of resistance in blood vessels?

A

vessel length, vessel diameter, and blood viscosity

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40
Q

which type of resistance in a vessel is the easiest to change? By what mechanisms?

A

vessel diameter by vasoconstriction or vasodilation

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41
Q

What factors can influence blood viscosity?

A

RBC count, platelet levels, and hydration/fluid levels

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42
Q

In which blood vessels is pressure highest? Lowest?

A

highest: arteries closest to the heart
lowest: veins closest to the heart

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43
Q

How do you calculate mean arterial pressure?

A

diastolic pressure plus 1/3 of the pulse pressure (systolic minus diastolic)

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44
Q

What are three things in the body that aid in venous return of blood?

A

muscular pumps with valves, respiratory pumps, and vasoconstriction

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45
Q

How do muscular pumps work?

A

as muscles contract, it pushes the blood towards the heart and valves dont allow it to backflow

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46
Q

how do respiratory pumps work?

A

as the lungs and ribs expand outward, it pushes venous blood towards the heart much like a muscular pump does

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47
Q

What are the three general types of controls for blood pressure?

A 
short term (neural) controls
hormonal (mid-time span) controls
kidneys (longer acting) controls
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48
Q

what brain region helps to regulate blood pressure? (general and specific)

A

medulla oblongata: vasomotor center

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49
Q

Name and describe the types of neural controls

A

baroreceptor: pressure receptors in large arteries that sense blood pressure and communicate with the medulla.
chemoreceptors: receptors that sense CO2 levels and pH and communicate with the medulla to change BP accordingly
higher brain centers: SNS activation of BP increase if a person is anxious or scared

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50
Q

what does high CO2 do to blood pH?

A

it makes it more acidic

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51
Q

name the hormones that control blood pressure

A

angiotensin II
ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
epinephrine/norepinephrine

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52
Q

angiotensin II

A

causes vasoconstriction

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53
Q

ANP (both functions)

A

causes vasodilation, but main function is to stimulate kidneys to release more sodium, increasing urination (which will also decrease BP)

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54
Q

Epinephrine/norepinephrine

A

causes vasoconstriction

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55
Q

ADH

A

causes vasodilation, but main function is to target kidneys and increase water retention

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56
Q

What is the slowest acting way to control blood pressure?

A

Controls originating with the kidneys

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57
Q

How does a direct mechanism for BP control at the kidneys work?

A

If BP is high, kidneys naturally filter more blood in a span of time, thus increasing fluid output and lowering/stabilizing blood pressure

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58
Q

What is the indirect mechanism for BP control at the kidneys?

A

Renin-angiotensin mechanism. Kidneys release Renin when BP is low, which stimulates the release of angiotensin II (through hormone cascade), which causes vasoconstiction and aids in ADH production. BP goes up

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59
Q

In what units is blood flow velocity measured?

A

cubic cm/second

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60
Q

Where is blood flow velocity slowest?

A

in the capillaries

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61
Q

Where is the TOTAL cross sectional vessel area largest in the body?

A

in the capillaries

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62
Q

What is autoregulation of local blood flow?

A

Increased blood flow to a specific area of the body depending on need

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63
Q

How do metabolic autoregulation mechanisms work?

A

Blood flow will increase to a certain area if there is an increase in metabolic activity (lactic acid production, excess CO2, nitrous oxide present, or low O2). Arterioles serving that area will dilate.

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64
Q

How do myogenic mechanism work to regulate blood pressure when it is high? Low?

A

(when local BP is elevated) the tunica media will be stretched and correct the problem by vasoconstricting
(When local BP is low) the tunica media feels the lack of stretch and will correct by vasodilating

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65
Q

How does angiogenesis help to autoregulate local blood flow?

A

In areas that get repeated heavy use (think training a specific muscle), the body will make more vessels to serve that area so it has lots of readily available blood flow

66
Q

In what three general ways is local blood flow autoregulated?

A

metabolic autoregulation, myogenic autoregulation, and angiogenesis

67
Q

Osmotic Pressure

A

Pulling pressure as refers to the movement of water (water being “pulled” towards a solute)

68
Q

Hydrostatic Pressure

A

Pushing Pressure of water (example: blood pressure)

69
Q

What will net filtration pressure look like in a healthy individual?

A

it will be a positive number, with bulk flow going out on the arterial side of the capillary and bulk flow going in at the negative end of the capillary

70
Q

What are the four types of filtration pressures?

A

osmotic pressure of the capillary
osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid
hydrostatic pressure of the capillary
hydrostatic pressure of the interstitial fluid

71
Q

What is the normal pH of blood?

A

7.35 to 7.45

72
Q

What are the components of blood?

A

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma

73
Q

Why is blood considered a connective tissue?

A

It is derived from the embryonic mesoderm (like all other connective tissues) and is composed of living cells in a non-living matrix

74
Q

carbaminohemoglobin

A

hemoglobin that’s carrying carbon dioxide. it carries it on the protein part, not the heme group, giving it this name.

75
Q

hematocytoblast

A

immature blood cell (stem cell) in the bone marrow

76
Q

polycythemia

A

elevated RBC levels or a high hematocrit

77
Q

What are the five types of white blood cells?

A 
neutrophils
basophils
eosinophils
lymphocytes
monocytes
78
Q

leukopenia

A

low white blood cell count

79
Q

leukemia

A

cancer of the white blood cells

80
Q

megakaryocyte

A

“Large nucleus cell” large bone marrow cell that produces thrombocytes

81
Q

What is the composition of plasma and in what percentages?

A

90% water, 8% proteins, and some nutrients, hormones, CO2, nitrogenous waste, and oxygen

82
Q

What are considered formed elements?

A

red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

83
Q

Where do blood cells originate?

A

in bone marrow

84
Q

Explain how the shape of red blood cells lend to their function

A

Biconcave shape allows more space for diffusion of oxygen (lots of space would be wasted if it was a classically round shape)

85
Q

How does the lack of nucleus help with the function of a RBC?

A

allows for biconcave shape, which allows for oxygen carrying capacity/ability to be maximized

86
Q

Why are there no mitochondria in red blood cells?

A

if it had mitochondria, it would use up a huge amount of the oxygen it was carrying just to do respiration.

87
Q

how do red blood cells get ATP?

A

they do glycolysis to make the small amount of needed ATP

88
Q

What allows red blood cells to carry oxygen?

A

the hemoglobin protein, which has iron groups on it that oxygen can bind to

89
Q

how many oxygen molecules can each hemoglobin protein carry?

A

four

90
Q

What does spectrin do?

A

Gives red blood cells their flexibility

91
Q

How do red blood cells die?

A

after around 120 days, their spectrin stops working and they lose most of their flexibility. They get stuck in the very small capillaries of the spleen and die there

92
Q

what is the structure of hemoglobin?

A

two alpha protein chains and two beta protein chains, each with a heme group on it

93
Q

hematopoiesis

A

formation of blood cells

94
Q

what gives rise to blood cells?

A

hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells) give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

95
Q

reticulocyte

A

young red blood cell that still has ribosomes on it (usually 1-2% of RBCs)

96
Q

what is the importance of a reticulocyte count?

A

if one has too many or too few reticulocytes, it could cause a host of issues (polycythemia, anemia, etc)

97
Q

What will too few red blood cells cause?

A

hypoxia

98
Q

what will too many red blood cells cause?

A

high blood viscosity

99
Q

what is the main hormone that stimulates RBC production?

A

erythropoietin (epo)

100
Q

What hormone enhances epo?

A

testosterone

101
Q

where is epo released and what does it target?

A

released by the kidneys and targets the bone marrow

102
Q

genetically engineered epo

A

athletes sometimes use genetically engineered epo to increase RBC count and oxygen carrying capacity, but it also can increase blood viscosity and put them at risk for clots

103
Q

list some causes of anemia

A

low RBC count, low hemoglobin levels, or abnormal blood cells or hemoglobin as in the case of sickle cell

104
Q

granulocytes

A

neutrophil
basophil
eosinophils

105
Q

List the types of white blood cells from most common to least common

A 
Neutrophil
Lymphocyte
Monocytes
Eosinophil
Basophil
106
Q

Granulocyte characteristics

A

Lobed nuclei and granules that contain acids, bases, or neutral substances

107
Q

Types of granulocytes

A

Basophils
Eosinophils
Neutrophils

108
Q

Basophils

A

Contain blue granules, basic loving, contain histamines that cause vasodilation in immune responses

109
Q

Eosinophils

A

Red granules, acid loving, bi-lobed nuclei. Protect against parasitic worms by injecting acid in them when encountered

110
Q

Neutrophils

A

Most common granulocyte, pH neutral. Phagocytize bacteria

111
Q

Agranulocyte characteristics and names

A

Large, non-lobed nuclei

Monocytes and lymphocytes

112
Q

Describe monocytes and how they do what they do

A

Largest WBC with a U shaped nucleus
Must leave bloodstream to become macrophages (big eaters) so they take longer to reach infection site. But when they get there, they can phagocytize a lot of bacteria at once

113
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Small WBCs that give rise to B and T cells for immune responses

114
Q

What chemicals stimulate/assist in leukopoiesis

A

Stimulated by colony stimulating factor and assisted by interleukin (communicates between white blood cells)

115
Q

What are the main functions of the respiratory system?

A 
Gas exchange (supply oxygen and remove CO2)
Regulate blood pH
Voice production
Sense of smell
Microbe protection
116
Q

Ventilation

A

The act of breathing air in and out

117
Q

Respiration

A

Gas exchange between air and blood or between blood and body tissues

118
Q

How does respiration differ from cellular respiration?

A

Respiration is different from cellular respiration because it focuses solely on the exchange of the gases, while cellular respiration functions to create energy that can be used by body cells. They are the same in that oxygen is part of the input and CO2 is part of the output, and they are the only two gases really involved in the process.

119
Q

What are the four processes involved in respiration?

A

Pulmonary ventilation: air into and out of the lungs
External respiration: gas exchange between lungs and blood
Transport: oxygen and CO2 moving through the blood
Internal respiration: exchange of oxygen and CO2 between blood and tissues

120
Q

Trace a molecule of oxygen through the respiratory system

A 
External nares
Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharyx, laryngopharynx)
Larynx
Trachea
Primary bronchi
Secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi
Bronchioles 
Terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles 
Alveolar duct
Alveoli 
Respiratory membrane 
Blood
121
Q

Tissues: external nares

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

122
Q

Nasopharynx tissues

A

Stratified squamous and pseudostratified columnar epithelium

123
Q

Oropharynx

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

124
Q

Laryngopharynx tissue

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

125
Q

Larynx tissue

A

Stratified squamous epithelium, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, elastic cartilage

126
Q

Trachea tissue

A

Hyaline cartilage, smooth muscle, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, dense regular connective tissue

127
Q

Primary bronchi tissue

A

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage

128
Q

Secondary bronchi tissue

A

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage

129
Q

Tertiary bronchi tissues

A

Smooth muscle, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, hyaline cartilage

130
Q

Bronchiole tissue

A

Smooth muscle, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, which becomes cubiodal as they get smaller

131
Q

Terminal bronchiole tissue

A

Smooth muscle and cuboidal epithelium

132
Q

Respiratory bronchiole tissue

A

Smooth muscle, ciliated cuboidal epithelium, collagenous and elastic tissue

133
Q

Alveolar duct tissue

A

Smooth muscle, cuboidal epithelium, collagenous and elastic tissues

134
Q

Alveoli tissues

A

Simple squamous epithelium, type II cells, macrophages

135
Q

Respiratory membrane

A

Simple squamous epithelium

136
Q

In what four ways (with what organs) is voice controlled?

A

Pitch: length and tension on vocal cords
Loudness: air in lungs
Whisper: just air, vocal cords not used
Shape of sounds: tongue, lips, pharynx muscles

137
Q

How does epithelial type change as bronchi/bronchioles branch?

A

Epithelium changes from pseudostratified columnar to regular columnar to cuboidal epithelium

138
Q

How does cartilage change as bronchi branch?

A

Cartilage gets less as they branch, and in the bronchioles there is no cartilage

139
Q

How does smooth muscle presence change as bronchi/bronchioles branch?

A

The amount of smooth muscle increases as they branch

140
Q

What three cell types are found in the alveoli?

A

Type I cells, type II cells, and alveolar macrophages

141
Q

Type I cells of the alveoli

A

Simple squamous epithelium

142
Q

Type II alveolar cells

A

Secrete surfactant

143
Q

Alveolar macrophages

A

Immune cells in alveoli

144
Q

Describe the locations of pleural membranes

A

The visceral pleura adheres to the lung directly, and the parietal pleura adheres to the thorax wall. The pleural space with fluid is between them to cut down on friction

145
Q

How do pleura aid in ventilation?

A

When rib cage expands/pulls upward during inspiration, it pulls on the pleura as well, pulling the lungs open more

146
Q

What three brain regions regulate breathing?

A

Ventral respiratory group, dorsal respiratory group, and pontine respiratory center

147
Q

Ventral respiratory group: location and function

A

Location: medulla oblongata
Function: directly outputs to respiratory muscles (external intercostals and diaphragm) and generates breathing rhythm

148
Q

What can suppress the ventral respiratory group?

A

Alcohol and morphine

149
Q

Dorsal respiratory group: location and function

A

Location: medulla oblongata
Function: integrates information from stretch receptors and chemoreceptors to adjust what the VRG is doing

150
Q

Pontine respiratory center: location and function

A

Location: pons
Function: modifies VRG for smoother transition between inspiration and expiration

151
Q

How do chemical receptors influence rate and depth of breathing?

A

high CO2 will make blood more acidic, and more breathing will be stimulated to try to increase O2 levels. Also if there’s very low O2, more breathing will be stimulated.

152
Q

How do joint muscle receptors influence respiration?

A

More movement = more breathing

153
Q

How does the hypothalamus influence breathing rate and depth?

A

Pain and emotions can influence breathing

154
Q

How do stretch receptors influence rate and depth of breathing?

A

if you breathe in too much, the pleurae stretch and you are forced to exhale protective response, not normal

155
Q

How can higher brain centers influence rate and depth of breathing?

A

The cortex can make voluntary choices about breathing

156
Q

How do irritant receptors influence breathing?

A

Irritants can make you cough or sneeze, changing breathing

157
Q

What is a primary cause of hypertension?

A

Atherosclerosis

158
Q

What is a secondary cause of hypertension?

A

Kidney or endocrine disorders

159
Q

Give three examples of portal vessels

A

Hepatic portal vessel (stomach/intestines to liver)
Placenta (from mom to placenta to baby to placenta back to mom)
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal (hypothalamus and pituitary gland)

160
Q

How many red blood cells does the body produce in what time frame?

A

2 million cells per second

A&P (10 decks)

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