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A&P > Chapters 9, 11, and 12 > Flashcards

Chapters 9, 11, and 12 Flashcards

1
Q

What are some functions of skeletal muscle?

A

movement, maintenance of posture, heartbeat, digestion, body heat, respiration

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2
Q

What are the four properties of muscle?

A

Excitability: able to respond to stimulus

extensibility: can be stretched beyond resting length
contractability: can shorten with force
elasticity: can return to normal resting length

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3
Q

What embryonic germ layer does muscle originate from?

A

Mesoderm

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4
Q

What are the three connective tissue layers surrounding muscle and which part does each cover?

A

Epimysium: connective tissue covering entire muscle
Perimysium: connective tissue surrounding fascicle
Endomysium: surrounds an individual muscle fiber

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5
Q

origin

A

attachment of muscle on stationary or less movable bone

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6
Q

insertion

A

attachment of muscle on more movable bone

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7
Q

What is the functional unit of skeletal muscle contraction?

A

the sarcomere

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8
Q

sarcomere shortening with force

A

contraction

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9
Q

sarcomere returning to original length

A

relaxation

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10
Q

synaptic cleft

A

separates axon terminal and sarcolemma

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11
Q

motor end plate

A

folded portion of sarcolemma that forms neuromuscular junction

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12
Q

neurotransmitter always present at NMJs

A

acetylcholine

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13
Q

neurotransmitter that breaks down ACH

A

acetylcholinesterase

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14
Q

nerve stimulates muscle, generation of action potential

A

excitation

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15
Q

shortening of sarcomere caused by action potential

A

contraction

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16
Q

triad

A

two thick portions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum together with one T-tubule

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17
Q

what are the steps in excitation/contraction coupling

A 
AP travels down axon
Voltage gated Ca channels open
release/diffusion/binding of ACH
Ligand gated sodium channels open
RMP changes, membrane depolarizes
AP travels down sarcolemma
Voltage gated channels open in T-tubules, Calcium enters sarcolemma and binds with troponin
Contraction occurs
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18
Q

What are the steps in the sliding filament model of contraction?

A

Calcium binds to troponin
Troponin moves tropomyosin off of binding sites on actin
Myosin heads crossbridge with actin (high energy attached, phosphate released)
Working stroke (release ADP, low energy attached)
Cross bridge detachment (ATP binds to myosin, low energy detached)
Reckoning of myosin heads (ATP hydrolyzed to ADP plus P with ATPase, high energy detached)

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19
Q

what is RMP of a muscle cell?

A

90 mV

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20
Q

in RMP, what part of the cell is charged?

A

the cell membrane only

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21
Q

what is the RMP of a nerve cell?

A

70 mV

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22
Q

How is RMP established?

A

it is established by the difference in ion charge on either side of the membrane. negative potassium inside, more positive sodium on the outside

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23
Q

How is RMP maintained?

A

by the sodium potassium pump (3 K in for every 2 Na out)

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24
Q

What kind of ions are involved in RMP maintenance and why?

A

positive ions only, because only they can move across the cell membrane

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25
Q

ligand gated channels are opened by

A

chemicals

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26
Q

voltage gated channels are opened by

A

electricity (action potentials)

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27
Q

What happens in depolarization?

A

starts at RMP and gets more positive, Na channels open bringing sodium into the cell. Rising phase of an AP

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28
Q

what happens in repolarization?

A

potassium gates open, making the inside of the cell more negative, membrane goes back to RMP. Falling phase of AP.

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29
Q

what re-establishes RMP after depolarization?

A

The sodium potassium pump

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30
Q

Explain the self-propagating nature of action potentials

A

action potentials spread like ripples on a pond, so the opening of channels on the membrane will cause the opening of more and more channels

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31
Q

What are the phases of muscle contraction?

A

latent time
contraction
relaxation

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32
Q

What is a motor unit?

A

one motor neuron and all the fibers it supplies

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33
Q

what kind of motor unit supplies muscles with less precise movements? Give an example

A

large motor unit

example: postural muscles

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34
Q

what kind of motor unit supplies muscles with more precise movements? Give an example

A

small motor unit

example: nerves of fingers and eyes

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35
Q

how are motor units arranged in the muscle?

A

they are spread evenly throughout the muscle, not clustered together

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36
Q

What does a stronger-than-threshold stimulus lead to?

A

multiple identical action potentials

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37
Q

What happens when maximal stimuli is applied?

A

all motor units respond

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38
Q

What happens when supramaximal stimuli is applied?

A

all motor units respond and no increase in action potentials is possible

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39
Q

Does stronger stimuli lead to stronger contractions or more contractions?

A

more contractions. They are stronger because contractions are happening more frequently

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40
Q

Explain calcium’s role and availability in muscle contraction

A

if contractions are fast, not all the calcium will have been returned from the previous one, leading to greater and greater calcium availability for later contractions. Muscles can only contract as long as calcium is present and available

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41
Q

What are the two components of multiple wave summation?

A
  1. it happens on a cellular level

2. As frequency of AP’s increases, frequency of contractions increases

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42
Q

What are the two components of multiple motor unit summation?

A
  1. happens on a muscular level
  2. As more motor units respond and get involved, the greater/more contractions there will be
    * also called recruitment*
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43
Q

What is treppe?

A

The staircase-like building effect of muscle contractions

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44
Q

Isometric contraction

A

change in tension but length stays the same. example: postural muscles

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45
Q

Isotonic contraction

A

no change in tension but length changes. example: bicep curl

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46
Q

What causes muscular fatigue?

A

ATP depletion, so cross bridges can no longer break

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47
Q

what causes synaptic fatigue?

A

it occurs in the NMJ due to lack of ACH

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48
Q

Explain what causes rigor mortis and what ends it

A

continual muscle contraction due to lack of ATP to break cross bridges. It eventually ends because actin and myosin break down

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49
Q

characteristics of fast twitch muscle fibers

A

poor blood supply
look white
respond and fatigue quickly
better for sprinting

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50
Q

characteristics of slow twitch muscle fibers

A

good blood supply
appear red
respond and fatigue slower
better for endurance exercises

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51
Q

what are autorhythmyic contractions

A

some smooth muscle of nervous system generates its own contractions. relatively constant tension leads to smooth tone of muscles

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52
Q

what are autorhythmic cells and where are they found?

A

found in cardiac muscle, generate their own action potentials.

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53
Q

what is the functional significance of autorhythmic cells?

A

ability to do heart transplants

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54
Q

What are the five main functions of the nervous system

A 
Monitor change via sensory input
Integration (control center)
Motor output via effector organs
homeostasis
mental activity
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55
Q

sensory afferent pathways

A

direct information from receptors towards processing center

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56
Q

motor efferent pathways

A

direct information from processing center to effector organs

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57
Q

what structures are found in the PNS?

A

sensory receptors, plexuses, ganglia, and nerves

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58
Q

what are the two divisions of the PNS?

A

sensory and motor divisions

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59
Q

What are the two divisions of the motor division and what characterizes each?

A

Somatic: skeletal muscle (conscious control)
Autonomic: smooth muscle, glands, cardiac muscle (unconscious control)

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60
Q

what are autonomic effector organs?

A

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

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61
Q

what are visceral effector organs?

A

skeletal muscle

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62
Q

Where are somatic sensory receptors located?

A

skin, skeletal muscle, and joints

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63
Q

Where are visceral effector organs located?

A

organs

64
Q

What are the parts of a neuron?

A

Dendrites, axons, and axon terminals

65
Q

What part of the neuron can generate an action potential?

A

the axon

66
Q

Where is the neurotransmitter generated?

A

the axon terminal

67
Q

What are the four characteristics of the neuron?

A

Conduct nerve impulses
Extreme longevity
Do not regenerate (amiotic)
High metabolic rate and cannot do anaerobic respiration

68
Q

Astrocytes

A

CNS glial cells

star shaped, most abundant, form blood brain barrier and control chemical environment around neurons

69
Q

Microglia

A

CNS glial cells

specialized macrophages. Monitor health of neurons and phagocytize neuron debris

70
Q

Ependymal cells

A

CNS glial cells

squamous and columnar shaped, ciliated. Line cavities of brain and spinal cord, forms choroid plexus which secretes CSF

71
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

CNS glial cells

form myelin sheath which allows AP’s to be conducted faster. Wrap around neuronal fibers

72
Q

Satellite cells

A

PNS glial cells

surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia, very little known about them

73
Q

Schwann cells

A

PNS glial cells

the oligodendrocytes of the PNS. form myelin sheath around PNS nerve fibers and aid in nerve regeneration

74
Q

nucleus

A

clusters of nerve cell bodies located within the CNS

75
Q

ganglion

A

cluster of nerve cell bodies located within PNS

76
Q

tract

A

bundles of neuron processes located in the CNS

77
Q

nerve

A

bundles of neuron processes located in PNS

78
Q

what is myelin?

A

Myelin is a fatty covering over nerve fibers and is composed of either schwann cells or oligodendrocytes

79
Q

What is the name for a gap between myelinated portions of the axon which action potentials jump over?

A

nodes of ranvier

80
Q

What is the difference between grey and white matter?

A

Grey matter is unmyelinated nerve fibers and cell bodies within the brain and spinal cord
White matter is myelinated nerve fibers and cell bodies within the brain and spinal cord

81
Q

a neuron being responsive to stimuli means it is…

A

irritable

82
Q

hyperpolarization

A

the membrane becomes even more negative compared to RMP, making it even less likely that an AP will occur

83
Q

what causes hyperpolarization and is it more similar to depolarization or repolarization?

A

it is caused by the opening of potassium gates and it is more similar to repolarization

84
Q

as pertains to distance, what is the difference between graded potentials and action potentials?

A

GPs are over short distances and APs are over long distances

85
Q

where on the neuron do graded potentials happen vs action potentials?

A

GP’s happen on dendrites and cell bodies, AP’s happen on the axon and axon terminal

86
Q

are GPs depolarization, hyperpolarization, or can they be both?

A

they can be both, either increasing or decreasing the chance of an action potential

87
Q

what are other names for graded potentials?

A

generator potential or a postsynaptic potential

88
Q

What is the undershoot/afterpolarization of an AP and what causes it?

A

This happens when potassium permeability continues due to slower response to depolarization signal. Potassium permeability lasts longer than strictly necessary

89
Q

What is the result of a stronger stimulus on the nerve?

A

Threshold is reached faster

90
Q

absolute refractory period

A

period when sodium channels are open and the neuron cannot respond to another stimulus. No AP can be generated

91
Q

relative refractory period

A

period following ARP. Threshold is significantly higher (sodium gates closed, potassium still open) but a strong stimulus can trigger an AP

92
Q

Group A nerve fibers

A

large diameter and thickest myelin. Somatic motor and sensory fibers of the skin and skeletal muscle

93
Q

Group B nerve fibers

A

medium diameter and myelin. Visceral fibers

94
Q

Group C nerve fibers

A

smallest diameter and no myelin. Pain and small touch fibers

95
Q

What is synaptic delay?

A

the time it takes for transmission to get across synapse, because this is the slowest step of transmission

96
Q

What is an EPSP and what happens in it?

A

excitatory postsynaptic potential

Opening of sodium gates, depolarization. Moves towards and action potential

97
Q

Where does an EPSP occur?

A

axons/cell bodies

98
Q

What is an IPSP and what happens in it?

A

inhibitory postsynaptic potential

Potassium gates open, leads to hyperpolarization. Moves away from an action potential

99
Q

Where does an IPSP happen?

A

dendrites/cell bodies

100
Q

What is temporal summation?

A

impulses from pre-synaptic neurons occur in rapid fire order

101
Q

what is spatial summation?

A

postsynaptic neuron stimulated by a large number of axon terminals

102
Q

what is synaptic potential?

A

repeated use of synapse makes the neurons more able to excite the postsynaptic neuron

103
Q

What are the four segments of the spinal cord?

A

Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral

104
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

31

105
Q

Dura mater

A

tough mother, most superficial meningeal layer, forms thecal sac

106
Q

arachnoid mater

A

spider like, intermediate meningeal layer

107
Q

pia mater

A

loving mother, meningeal layer that adheres directly to spinal cord

108
Q

epidural space

A

space outside the thecal sac (dura mater)

109
Q

Subdural Space

A

between dura and arachnoid mater, contains serous fluid

110
Q

subarachnoid space

A

between arachnoid and pia maters, contains CSF

111
Q

What is the basic functional unit of the nervous system?

A

a reflex

112
Q

What is a reflex?

A

It is a rapid, predictable motor response to a stimulus

113
Q

What are the five components of a reflex arc?

A 
Receptor
Sensory neuron
Integration center (may be spinal cord interneuron)
Motor neuron
Effector
114
Q

What is a stretch reflex?

A

muscle starts off relaxed. The receptor is a muscle spindle, which is located in the muscle belly. The stimulus is the stretch of a muscle. In opposition, the antagonist muscle relaxes, which is called reciprocal inhibition. Stretch reflexes are monosynaptic and ipsilateral

115
Q

what is an example of the stretch reflex?

A

reflex hammer

116
Q

what is a deep tendon reflex?

A

the muscle starts contracted. The receptor is the golgi tendon organ, which is located on the muscle tendon. The stimulus is the stretch of a muscle due to muscle contraction. In opposition, the antagonist muscle contracts, forcing the tendon to let go (reciprocal activation). Deep tendon reflexes are ipsilateral and polysynaptic

117
Q

what is an example of the deep tendon reflex?

A

doing a pull up until you can’t hold it any more

118
Q

What is a crossed extensor reflex?

A

a reflex that requires response on both sides of the body, usually a flexor reflex on one side to pull away and an extensor reflex on the other side to balance and stabilize the body

119
Q

From inside to outside, what is the order of nerve connective tissues and structures?

A 
axon
neurilemma
endoneurium
perineurium (around fascicles)
epineurium (surrounds nerve)
120
Q

what is a mixed nerve?

A

a nerve that contains both sensory and motor fibers

121
Q

How are the pairs of spinal nerves divided between sections?

A

8 from the cervical, 12 from the thoracic, 5 from the lumbar, 5 from the sacral, and one from the coccygeal

122
Q

How many cranial nerves are there?

A

12 pairs

123
Q

From where do the cranial nerve pairs originate?

A

the first two pairs originate from the forebrain, the last 10 from the brainstem

124
Q

What is unique about the vagus nerve?

A

it is the only cranial nerve that serves anything below the head/neck. Serves thoracic and abdominal viscera

125
Q

What do the ventral and dorsal rami do?

A

Both serve voluntary skeletal muscle and skin. They serve the whole somatic portion of the body below the neck

126
Q

what are autonomic fibers leading to sympathetic chain ganglia?

A

rami communicantes

127
Q

What is a nerve plexus?

A

where ventral rami branch and join one another lateral to the vertebral column

128
Q

What do nerve plexuses have to protect them in case of nerve injury?

A

each plexus has nerve fibers from several different spinal nerves, meaning that if damage occurs on one spinal nerve level, there will still be functioning fibers from other levels serving that area of the body

129
Q

What is the branching sequence of the brachial nerve plexus?

A

5 rami
3 trunks
2 divisions (anterior and posterior)
3 cords

130
Q

What are the five major brachial plexus nerves and what areas do they each serve?

A 
Musculocutaneous nerve (anterior arm)
Axillary nerve (shoulder and armpit)
Radial nerve (wrist, hand, finger extensors)
Median nerve (finger, wrist, forearm flexors)
Ulnar nerve (wrist/finger flexors, adductors and abductors)
131
Q

An area of skin innervated by the cutaneous division of a spinal nerve is a

A

dermatome

132
Q

anesthesia is

A

loss of sensation

133
Q

pain radiating down the back of the thigh and leg is

A

sciatica

134
Q

infantile paralysis is called

A

poliomyelitis

135
Q

disease resulting in fatigue and muscle weakness due to inadequate ACh receptors is

A

myasthenia gravis

136
Q

infections of the PNS can cause these skin diseases

A

herpes and shingles

137
Q

How does muscle fiber growth occur?

A

numbers remain constant, growth is increase in cell size

138
Q

sarcolemma

A

plasma membrane of muscle cel

139
Q

sarcoplasm

A

cytoplasm of muscle cell

140
Q

in the train analogy, what is the whole train

A

a myofibril

141
Q

What are myofibrils made of?

A

myofilaments

142
Q

the thick filaments are

A

myosin

143
Q

thin filaments are

A

actin

144
Q

the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores

A

calcium

145
Q

is the plasma membrane more permeable to potassium or sodium?

A

potassium

146
Q

depolarization opens

A

sodium channels

147
Q

repolarization opens

A

potassium channels

148
Q

sustained contraction with no relaxation is also called

A

complete tetanus

149
Q

What do nerves exiting at T2-T12 form?

A

intercostal nerves

150
Q

In a nerve cell, nissl bodies secrete

A

Neurotransmitters

151
Q

What do nerves exiting at T2-T12 form?

A

intercostal nerves

152
Q

tapered end of spinal cord extending to L2

A

conus medularis

153
Q

connetive tissue strand that anchors conus medullaris and thecal sac to the 1st coccygeal vertebra

A

filium terminale

154
Q

cauda eqina

A

spinal nerves near end of cord (resemble horses tail)

155
Q

cervical and lumbar enlargements

A

area on spinal cord where nerves serving upper and lower limbs exit the cord

A&P (10 decks)

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