FL 9 - Psych/Soc Flashcards
Some sociologists attribute the increase in inequality in the United States to a breakdown in social solidarity caused by excessive individualism and increasing social isolation. Which sociological concept is closest to this explanation?
A. Anomie
B. Conflict theory
C. Functionalism
D. Rational choice theory
A. Anomie
Anomie, first used by the famed sociologist Emile Durkheim, describes the breakdown in social bonds in modern societies, which is the result of a loss of social norms and reciprocity.
Another theory comes from George Herbert Mead, who described the self in two parts called the Me and the I.
The part of self that is developed through interaction with society is the ____. The development of this aspect comes from considering the generalized other, which is based on a person’s established perceptions of the expectations of society. Any time that a person tries to imagine what is expected of them in a social situation, they are taking on the perspective of the generalized other. And by considering the perspective of the generalized other and adapting one’s behavior appropriately, the ___ develops.
Another theory comes from George Herbert Mead, who described the self in two parts called the Me and the I.
The part of self that is developed through interaction with society is the Me. The development of the Me comes from considering the generalized other, which is based on a person’s established perceptions of the expectations of society. Any time that a person tries to imagine what is expected of them in a social situation, they are taking on the perspective of the generalized other. And by considering the perspective of the generalized other and adapting one’s behavior appropriately, the Me develops.
By contrast, the ___ is the individual’s own impulses. However, the it is not totally independent of the ___. Rather, a person’s impulses are shaped by their interpretation of society’s expectations. In short, the ___ shapes the ___.
By contrast, the I is the individual’s own impulses. However, the I is not totally independent of the Me. Rather, a person’s impulses are shaped by their interpretation of society’s expectations. In short, the Me shapes the I.
What is trait theory?
This is an overarching term that may refer to a number of different theories, including the Big Five theory of personality or the PEN model. Trait theories of personality generally divide personalities into a more limited set of traits that interact differently in various individuals.
What is creative intelligence?
Creative intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.
In addition to prenatal visits, regular postpartum checkups are also encouraged in order to monitor infant development. One way to assess an infant’s neural development is to check for primitive reflexes. To check for the Moro reflex, a physician may:
A. stroke an infant’s cheek, and then observe whether the infant turns their head.
B. stroke an infant’s palm, and then observe whether the infant grasps their finger.
C. stroke the sole of an infant’s foot, and then observe whether the infant’s toes fan out.
D. make a loud sound, and then observe whether the infant extends their arms and legs.
D. make a loud sound, and then observe whether the infant extends their arms and legs.
This choice describes the Moro reflex. The Moro reflex is a type of startle reflex that occurs in response to sudden movement or loud sounds, in which an infant extends its arms and legs, throws back its head, and cries.
__________ memory refers to memories related to plans to do something in the future.
Prospective memory refers to memories related to plans to do something in the future.
After an infant forms a mental representation of the visual habituation stimuli using short-term memory, how long will it likely be remembered?
A. 5-10 seconds
B. 15-30 seconds
C. 1 day
D. Indefinitely
B. 15-30 seconds
The passage states that the mental representations of visual habitual stimuli enter short-term memory. Short-term memory lasts approximately 15-30 seconds, unless it is actively rehearsed, which could extend this period.
What is an approximation of the time frame for working memory?
5-10 seconds
The __________ bias is the tendency to attribute our own behaviors to situational (external) factors, while attributing others’ behavior to dispositional (internal) factors.
The actor-observer bias is the tendency to attribute our own behaviors to situational (external) factors, while attributing others’ behavior to dispositional (internal) factors.
The _________ bias is a tendency to make attributions that protect our self-esteem, namely by attributing our own positive behaviors to dispositional factors and negative behaviors to situational factors.
The self-serving bias is a tendency to make attributions that protect our self-esteem, namely by attributing our own positive behaviors to dispositional factors and negative behaviors to situational factors.
Explain the false consensus effect
The false consensus effect means that people tend to overestimate how common their behavior is and assume that others do the same things they do.
Jenny is 13 years old. She believes that smoking marijuana after school every day is a completely normal experience and assumes that all of her classmates do the same thing when they go home. What attribution bias is Jenny making?
A. False consensus effect
B. Actor-observer bias
C. Fundamental attribution error
D. Self-serving bias
A. False consensus effect
The false consensus effect means that people tend to overestimate how common their behavior is and assume that others do the same things they do.
Define cultural capital
Cultural capital encompasses non-financial factors that lead to social mobility such as:
knowledge of styles and manners of speech, appearance, and charisma.
It does not include the value of social networks, though having strong social networks can help in acquiring it.
What is the difference between fertility rate and birth rate?
The fertility rate is also a common sociological term, but this refers to the number of children per woman, not per 1000 people.
The birth rate refers to the number of children born each year per 1000 people.
A particular study repeatedly refers to the number of yearly births per 1000 people. What is the correct term for this measurement?
A. Birth rate
B. Fertility rate
C. Mortality rate
D. Prevalence rate
A. Birth rate
The birth rate is the common term for number of births per 1000 people.
In the human eye, photoreceptors that are responsible for perceiving color and fine detail are predominantly located in the:
A. iris.
B. fovea.
C. sclera.
D. cornea.
B. fovea.
The fovea is a small central pit in the retina that only contains cones, which are the photoreceptors that are responsible for perceiving color and fine detail.
Compare and contrast the imaging techniques of CT and MRI
The choice between CT and MRI depends on several factors - for instance, MRI is better at imaging soft structures and does not involve a dose of ionizing radiation, which is a downside of CT imaging, but it is also more expensive, time-consuming, and involved for the patient. However, what CT and MRI have in common is that both techniques are good for imaging static structures.
Can EEG be used to localize the source of brain signals?
An EEG, or electroencephalogram, measures brain activity through electrodes placed on the scalp. This method is poor at localizing the source of signals and is more commonly used to monitor different stages of sleep.
Explain and give an example of reaction formation
Reaction formation refers to an unconscious transmutation of unacceptable desires into their opposite. A common example of reaction formation is an individual’s attraction towards another person being converted into hatred.
Explain and give an example of the defense mechanism of displacement
Displacement involves satisfying an impulse, such as aggression, with a substitute object.
A common example of displacement is feeling irritated towards one’s family due to stress at work.
What is a key difference between the defense mechanisms of displacement and sublimation
Though displacement is similar to sublimation, there is a key difference: sublimation involves the redirection of impulses to socially acceptable behavior, while displacement does not have this characteristic and is a more general term.
Research has shown that, during periods of mania, some individuals with bipolar disorder may utilize Freudian defense mechanisms. If an individual were to redirect inappropriate desires into more socially acceptable behaviors, they would be exhibiting:
A. reaction formation.
B. sublimation.
C. displacement.
D. projection.
B. sublimation.
Sublimation refers to the redirection of desires that are felt to be unacceptable or inappropriate into another behavior. A common example of sublimation is encouraging kids to play sports in order to redirect feelings of aggression or anger. This matches the description in the question, and is the correct answer.
What defense mechanism is demonstrated here:
encouraging kids to play sports in order to redirect feelings of aggression or anger.
A common example of sublimation is encouraging kids to play sports in order to redirect feelings of aggression or anger.
Daniel is hired as a new sales executive at a pharmaceutical company. Daniel’s coworkers form a:
A. Primary group
B. Secondary group
C. Peer group
D. Reference group
B. Secondary group
A secondary group is more short-lasting and consists of superficial or transient relationships. Because Daniel was newly hired at his company, it is likely that he is still getting to know his coworkers, and thus considers them to be a secondary group.
what is a major difference between a secondary group and a peer group?
In a secondary group, the interactions are impersonal and businesslike, with few emotional bonds and with the goal of accomplishing a specific purpose. Secondary groups typically last for a short period of time, and they form and dissolve without any special significance to those involved, an example being students working together on a group project.
A peer group is a group that consists of self-selected equals associated by similar interests, ages, or statuses. Peer groups provide an opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging.
What is a major distinguisher of a peer group?
A peer group is a group that consists of self-selected equals associated by similar interests, ages, or statuses. Peer groups provide an opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging.
Define and give an example of a reference group
reference groups are groups that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves.
For example, to determine how strong a medical school applicant you are, you might compare yourself to the reference group of all medical school applicants.
Explain the theory of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft,
The German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies distinguished two major types of groups. His theory is known as Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, which translates to community and society.
Gemeinschaft (community) refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography. Families and neighborhoods are examples of Gemeinschaften.
Gesellschaft (society) refers to less personal groups that are formed out of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal. Companies and countries are examples of Gesellschaften.
Explain and give an example of identification, in the context of conformity
Identification is a type of conformity that happens when a person does something to conform to a social role.
For example, if someone was a rock star and believed they had to drink to be a rock star, this would be identification.
Explain the similarities and differences between identification and internalization, in the context of conformity
Internalization and identification both deal with accepting others’ ideas, but whereas internalization also reflects a change in internal thoughts to agree with the idea, identification is acceptance of the idea on the surface level without internalizing it.
Alcohol consumption may result in “blackouts,” or the inability of a person who drinks to recall events that happened while he or she was drinking. This type of memory loss is best classified as:
A. retrograde amnesia.
B. anterograde amnesia
C. post-traumatic amnesia.
D. psychogenic amnesia.
B. anterograde amnesia
Blackout describes the inability of a person who drinks to recall events that happened while he or she was drinking, suggesting that he or she was unable to form memories while under the influence of alcohol. The inability to form new memories is called anterograde amnesia.
During an experiment, participants were asked to listen to a recording of a familiar song that was played from the middle of the track, rather than from the beginning. The researchers then measured how long it took for participants to accurately identify the song. Which of the following strategies was most likely used by participants prior to identifying the song and after identifying the song, respectively?
A. Top-down processing and bottom-up processing
B. Bottom-up processing and top-down processing
C. Top-down processing and sensory adaptation
D. Bottom-up processing and sensory adaptation
B. Bottom-up processing and top-down processing
Bottom-up processing refers to a pattern in which our brain takes pieces of sensory information and assembles them into a coherent whole. This is NOT influenced by background knowledge. Before identifying the song, participants had to rely on their perception of the raw sound produced by the recording, making this an instance of bottom-up processing.
After identifying the song, participants then switched to top-down processing, which uses background knowledge and prior expectations to recognize an object.
Define:
Meta-cognition
Meta-cognition involves being able to think about thinking, and enables an individual to observe his own processes and learn from them.
Explain the idea of primary prevention of a disease/problem behavior
Primary prevention refers to prevention of a disease or problem behavior before any signs, symptoms, or risk behaviors have developed.
Explain the idea of secondary prevention of a disease/problem behavior
Secondary prevention is seen when there is an established risk factor present or when a disease/problem behavior has already begun to develop.
Explain the idea of tertiary prevention of a disease/problem behavior
Tertiary prevention refers to the prevention of a disease or problem behavior from getting significantly worse;
For example, if students had significant, non-normative issues with alcohol use or abuse, tertiary prevention might serve to establish a school-wide AA or harm reduction program
Define:
Detection bias
Detection bias arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome that disproportionately occurs in certain populations.
According to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development theory, what conflict is resolved during adolescence?
A. Identity versus role confusion
B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt
C. Intimacy versus isolation
D. Initiative versus guilt
A. Identity versus role confusion
During adolescence (typically defined as the age range of 12-18), teens attempt to develop self-identity and a sense of where they stand in their social group.
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises between ages 20 and 40?
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Ages 20-40
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises between ages 40 and 65?
Generativity vs Stagnation
Ages 40-65
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises at 65 and older?
Ego integrity vs Despair
Ages 65+
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises between ages 6 and 12?
Industry vs Inferiority
Ages 6-12
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises between ages 3 and 6?
Initiative vs Guilt
Ages 3-6
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises between ages 1 and 3?
Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt
Ages 1-3
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises between ages 0 and 1?
Trust vs Mistrust
Ages 0-1
According to Erik Erikson, what conflict arises between ages 12 and 20?
Identity vs Role Confusion
Ages 12-20
What does each conflict represent in Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development?
Each conflict represents an opportunity to learn a new social or emotional skill, which, according to Erikson, is the mechanism for psychosocial development.
What does Erikson propose happens if a conflict is resolved with the negative outcome? Can this ever be fixed?
In Erikson’s theory, an individual who fails to obtain a positive resolution at one stage can still advance to later stages and, later in life, may even learn the skill that they failed to learn during the developmental conflict.
Does social facilitation predict that performance will improve in any task that is performed in the presence of others?
No. Performance will improve if the task is simple. If the task is complex or new, performance is hindered.
Social facilitation is the tendency that people have to perform simple tasks better or more efficiently when in the presence of other people. Inversely, when performing a complex or new task, the presence of others can hinder one’s performance.
What is state-dependent learning?
State-dependent learning refers to being able to recall information better when in the same state in which it was learned
Which theory of language development posits that children primarily acquire language through operant conditioning?
A. Learning theory
B. Nativist theory
C. Interactionist theory
D. Linguistic theory
A. Learning theory
The learning theory of language development states that language is a learned behavior that develops in response to environmental stimuli and responses. It was developed by B.F. Skinner, who also formulated the theory of behaviorism, and focuses on the ways in which operant conditioning and reinforcement can shape language acquisition.
Joseph Hickey and William Thompson, two sociologists, outlined the following breakdown of a particular nation’s socioeconomic structure into five classes.
What term can be used to describe the social structure of this nation?
A. A complete meritocracy with a class system
B. A partial meritocracy with a class system
C. A partial meritocracy with a caste system
D. An oligarchy with a class system
B. A partial meritocracy with a class system
B is correct. Hickey and Thompson conducted their research in the United States, which is organized as a partial meritocracy. A meritocracy is a system of social or governmental organization in which hard work and talent are rewarded with success. The U.S. and Canada are largely meritocratic societies, which explains why you often hear of “rags-to-riches” stories. However, virtually no true meritocracies exist, as those who are born to wealthy or politically powerful clans typically possess an advantage. Additionally, the diagram shows the existence of five distinct classes.
According to Erikson, during which stage does an individual experience a “physiological revolution”?
A. Industry vs. inferiority
B. Identity vs. role confusion
C. Intimacy vs. isolation
D. Trust vs. mistrust
B. Identity vs. role confusion
B is correct. The “physiological revolution” occurs during adolescence, which coincides with Erikson’s conflict between identity and role confusion. During this developmental stage, an individual’s body is undergoing the sometimes-uncomfortable changes associated with puberty. At this point, he or she is pressured to answer the question: “Who am I?”
The figure below was shown to a number of participants in a psychology experiment.
Identifying a square in the middle of this array of shapes demonstrates the Gestalt principle of:
A. proximity.
B. similarity.
C. propriety.
D. elegant design.
B. similarity.
The principle of similarity states that people tend to group objects that look similar into a pattern. In this case, though objects are scattered throughout the image, we perceive the hearts as forming a square due to their similar shape.
A group of linguists at a large university conducted a longitudinal study that tracked language development in a group of children. Participants in the study were chosen from various cultures and with a variety of distinct home environments throughout childhood. Linguistic control was determined with a battery of tests assessing fluency, breadth of vocabulary, and grasp of syntactic rules, and rated on a scale of 0 to 10.
How could this study be altered to either support or undermine the nativist theory of language development?
A. Researchers could have examined differences in the developmental timeline between children of different nationalities.
B. Researchers could have assessed the effects of different living situations on development.
C. Researchers could have included a group of children who grew up in homes without adult contact.
D. None of these changes would argue for or against the nativist theory.
C. Researchers could have included a group of children who grew up in homes without adult contact.
The nativist theory posits that language acquisition occurs via an innate biological mechanism. Therefore, if children who grew up completely lacking adult contact had the same level of mastery as children in a control group, the nativist theory would be supported. If, instead, the children who were deprived of adult contact showed deficiencies in linguistic control, this would undermine the nativist theory in favor of the learning theory.
A college student conducts an experiment on changes to skin temperature during emotional responses. He measures the temperature of the skin on his friend’s forearm over the course of 15 seconds. At some point during this interval, he surprises his friend with a loud shout. The friend is told to push a button at the instant when he feels that he has experienced emotion. Results of this experiment are graphed below.
If the experimenter shouted at the 5-second mark, but the friend didn’t push the button until two seconds later, which theory of emotion does the study validate?
A. The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
B. The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
C. The Garret-Luis theory of emotion
D. The Jesse-James theory of emotion
B. The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
According to the Schachter-Singer theory, a physiological response to a stimulus happens first, followed by cognitive appraisal of the situation. This appraisal then results in the experience of a related emotion. In this scenario, both the stimulus and the change to skin temperature occurred at the 5-second mark, but the friend did not push the button until 7 seconds in. This indicates that the physiological sensation happened before the experience of emotion.
The diagram below depicts the human eye.
A middle-aged woman who must wear protective sunglasses in bright light most likely has a problem with which labeled structure?
A. Structure 1, the cornea
B. Structure 3, the sclera
C. Structure 2, the choroid
D. Structure 4, the retina
C. Structure 2, the choroid
The choroid is a layered region of the eye that contains connective tissue and blood vessels; it is located beneath the retina but above the sclera. Since the choroid is responsible for absorbing excess light, it is likely that this patient has an issue with the choroids of her eyes.
The demographic transition model, below, was proposed by Warren Thompson. It delineates the typical population changes that mark a transition from a pre-industrial to an industrial economic system.
Name the phases shown in this figure, from stage 1 to stage 4.
A. Pre-industrial; urbanization; mature industrial; post-industrial
B. Urbanization; pre-industrial; mature industrial; post-industrial
C. Pre-industrial; mature industrial; urbanization; post-industrial
D. Pre-industrial; mature industrial; post-industrial; urbanization
A. Pre-industrial; urbanization; mature industrial; post-industrial
In stage 1, which marks pre-industrial society, both birth and death rates are high and the population exists in an equilibrium. In stage 2, urbanization, the developing country improves its food supply and sanitation (thus decreasing its mortality rate) while the birth rate remains unaltered. In stage 3, the mature industrial age, birth rates decrease due to contraceptives, women’s rights, and an increase in wages. Finally, stage 4 is the post-industrial phase. Here, both low birth rates and low death rates are present, and the population is at equilibrium again.
