FL 5- Psych/Soc

Question 1

Define: The Lazarus Theory of Emotion

Answer 1

The Lazarus theory states that emotions are determined by one’s appraisal of the stimulus.

Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come BEFORE any emotion or physiological arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience an emotion.

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you think it may be a mugger so you then begin to tremble, your heart then beats faster, and your breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear.

Question 2

Define: The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Answer 2

An early theory of emotion, the James-Lange theory, hypothesized that a stimulus triggers a physiological response, which then leads to the subjective, conscious experience of emotion.

For example, if you are watching a scary movie, your heart rate may become elevated, and that leads to the perception of fear. However, this theory is limited, since certain physiological states may be experienced as different emotions depending on context (such as either fear or excitement).

Question 3

Define: The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Answer 3

A second theory, the Cannon-Bard theory, posited that cognitive and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously and independently of one another, with a behavioral response following them. However, this theory still lacks any element of cognitive appraisal, or conscious thought about how one’s situation may impact the emotion(s) felt.

For example, seeing a snake might prompt both the feeling of fear (an emotional response) and a racing heartbeat (a physical reaction). Cannon-Bard suggests that both of these reactions occur simultaneously and independently. In other words, the physical reaction isn’t dependent on the emotional reaction, and vice versa.

Question 4

Define: The Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

Answer 4

A third theory, the Schachter-Singer theory, thus stated that a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal, then a cognitive interpretation of the circumstances, and finally a perception of emotion. This resembles the James-Lange theory, but adds the element of cognitive appraisal, which helps explain how (for example) an elevated breathing rate can be interpreted as multiple different emotions based on context.

This theory of emotion focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal. In other words, simply feeling arousal is not enough; we also must identify the arousal in order to feel the emotion.

Question 5

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

Answer 5

An unconditioned stimulus is one for which the subject has not been conditioned. In other words, it is a stimulus that naturally leads to a particular response.

Question 6

What is Psychoeducation?

Answer 6

Psychoeducation is providing knowledge about a condition and its treatment.

Psychoeducation can include: information given verbally in a therapy session; written material in the form of Psychology Tools information handouts, guides, and chapters; exercises or homework tasks where patients are encouraged to discover information for themselves.

Question 7

What is Dissonance Induction?

Answer 7

Dissonance induction is the cognitive dissonance that is induced when individuals are forced to recognize the inconsistency between their beliefs and behaviors.

Question 8

What is triadic reciprocal causation and who introduced the concept?

Answer 8

Albert Bandura introduced a concept he termed triadic reciprocal causation, in which behavior, personal factors, and environment all influence our attitudes. The interaction between these three factors is called reciprocal determinism.

Question 9

What is internal validity?

Answer 9

Internal validity reflects the extent to which you can assume the intervention being studied caused the observed outcome. Can is accurately attribute cause and effect?

• Internal validity can be deficient by confounding variables, biases, and invalid or logical measurements

Question 10

What is face validity?

Answer 10

Face validity refers to whether an assessment superficially appears to measure what it is supposed to measure.

For instance, if a test is prepared to measure whether students can perform multiplication, and the people to whom it is shown all agree that it looks like a good test of multiplication ability, this demonstrates face validity of the test. Face validity is often contrasted with content validity and construct validity.

Notice the difference between construct and face validity. Construct validity is if something “really” measures the construct, say of depression. Face validity is “appears to”, based on the face or surface to measure say, depression.

Question 11

A participant in the study successfully quits smoking, but still finds that when he gets into the car, he turns on the cigarette lighter without initially being aware of what he is doing. What kind of memory is the participant using?

Answer 11

Implicit Memory

• Implicit memory is subconscious memory that usually pertains to procedural behavior or conditioned responses. In this case, the participant was conditioned to start the cigarette lighter when he got into the car.

Question 12

What is Episodic Memory?

Answer 12

Episodic memory refers to memory of specific life experiences.

Question 13

What is Semantic Memory?

Answer 13

Semantic memory refers to memory of specific facts and concepts. If you have the abbreviations for the twenty standard amino acids memorized, that information is part of your semantic memory.

Question 14

What is Echoic Memory?

Answer 14

Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that pertains only to auditory information.

Question 15

In psychology, what are Defense Mechanisms?

Answer 15

Defense mechanisms include a wide range of psychological dynamics through which an individual deals with undesired thoughts or feelings (conceptualized as conflict between the superego and id in Freudian psychology).

Some examples include:

• Denial
• Repression
• Projection
• Displacement
• Regression
• Rationalization
• Sublimation
• Reaction formation

Question 16

What is repression?

Answer 16

Repression is the process the ego uses to push undesired or unacceptable thoughts and urges down into the unconscious.

The conscious, deliberate form of this is known as suppression or denial, and is typically used to willfully forget an emotionally painful experience or event.

Regression is the unconscious process of reverting back to behaviors that are less sophisticated and often associated with children (sucking one’s thumb, wetting the bed).

Question 17

What is suppression/denial?

Answer 17

Repression is the process the ego uses to push undesired or unacceptable thoughts and urges down into the unconscious.

The conscious, deliberate form of this is known as suppression or denial, and is typically used to willfully forget an emotionally painful experience or event.

Regression is the unconscious process of reverting back to behaviors that are less sophisticated and often associated with children (sucking one’s thumb, wetting the bed).

Question 18

What is regression, in terms of psychology?

Answer 18

Repression is the process the ego uses to push undesired or unacceptable thoughts and urges down into the unconscious.

The conscious, deliberate form of this is known as suppression or denial, and is typically used to willfully forget an emotionally painful experience or event.

Regression is the unconscious process of reverting back to behaviors that are less sophisticated and often associated with children (sucking one’s thumb, wetting the bed).

Question 19

Explain the Psychoanalytic Theory?

Answer 19

The Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality (aka psychodynamic theory) asserts that personality and behavior arise from dynamic interactions between the id, superego, and ego.

The id drives a person to pursue immediate pleasure and to avoid pain. It is innate and completely unconscious.

The superego is the moral conscious driving people toward idealistic goals. It is shaped by socialization. The ego mediates between the id and the superego according to the reality principle.

The ego uses defense mechanisms to alleviate anxiety that can be caused by conflicts between the id and the superego. Psychoanalytic theory is a deterministic theory of personality.

Question 20

What is the reality principle?

Answer 20

in classical psychoanalytic theory, the reality principle is the regulatory mechanism that represents the demands of the external world and requires the individual to forgo or modify instinctual gratification or to postpone it to a more appropriate time.

In contrast to the pleasure principle, which is posited to dominate the life of the infant and child and govern the id, or instinctual impulses, the reality principle is posited to govern the ego, which controls impulses and enables people to deal rationally and effectively with the situations of life.

Question 21

Explain what it means by stating the psychoanalytic theory is a deterministic theory of personality

Answer 21

Psychoanalytic theorists believe that human behavior is deterministic. It is governed by irrational forces, and the unconscious, as well as instinctual and biological drives. Due to this deterministic nature, psychoanalytic theorists do not believe in free will.

Question 22

What is reaction formation?

Answer 22

Reaction formation, a defense mechanism, is the process of repressing a feeling by outwardly expressing the exact opposite of it. For example, if you really hate a person, you would pretend to really like them.

Question 23

What is projection?

Answer 23

Projection, a defense mechanism, is the process of attributing one’s own undesired thoughts or feelings onto another person. For example, if you have a serious problem with your roommate, you will believe that your roommate has a serious problem with you.

Question 24

In terms of psychology, what is displacement?

Answer 24

Displacement, a defense mechanism, is the process of redirecting violent, sexual, or otherwise unseemly impulses from being directed at one person or thing to another. For example, if a teacher having trouble with a problem student begins to feel aggressive urges towards the student, the teacher might displace those aggressive feelings towards their spouse when arriving at home.

Question 25

What is rationalization?

Answer 25

Rationalization, a defense mechanism, is the process of justifying one’s behaviors, which might be socially unacceptable and impulsive, with intellectual explanations that are more acceptable. For example, you might explain your vandalism of a public wall with spray paint by saying, “Well, so many other people do it, look how many walls have graffiti on them.”

• Rationalization happens when a person uses false but logical reasons to explain a feeling or desire. For example, the leader might say that she’s only craving cigarettes because everyone else is talking about quitting, when, in reality, her cravings started before she began leading the program

Question 26

In psychology terms, what is intellectualization?

Answer 26

Intellectualization is the use of cognitive processes to separate oneself from the real problem and avoid any emotions and impulses that may arise. If an addiction recovery program leader was using intellectualization, she might focus on statistics about relapse and quitting instead of thinking about why she’s craving cigarettes.

Intellectualization involves a person using reason and logic to avoid uncomfortable or anxiety-provoking emotions. Intellectualization can be a useful way of explaining and understanding negative events. For example, if person A is rude to person B, person B may think about the possible reasons for person A’s behavior.

Question 27

Explain the phenomenon of “regression to the mean”

Answer 27

Regression to the mean refers to responses becoming less extreme when participants are assessed again, therefore progressing closer to the mean response.

• the tendency for extremely high or extremely low scores to become more moderate (i.e., closer to the mean) upon retesting over time.

Question 28

What is self-perception theory?

Answer 28

Self-perception theory posits that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do.

According to self-perception theory, when people are unsure of their own attitudes, one way to infer them is by looking at their behaviors.

Question 29

What is “self-handicapping”?

Answer 29

Self-handicapping is the process of developing (anticipating failure) behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize personal responsibility for the failure.

Self-handicapping is a cognitive strategy by which people avoid effort in the hopes of keeping potential failure from hurting self-esteem. Self-handicaps are obstacles created, or claimed, by the individual in anticipation of failing performance.

Question 30

Explain Mead’s “me”

Answer 30

Mead proposed two versions of the self: the “me” and the “I.”

The “me” is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one’s social self through role-taking.

The “I” is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity. Essentially, the “me” is the social self and the “I” is one’s response to the “me.” Through socialization, individuals learn to look at the world through others’ perspectives.

Question 31

Explain Mead’s “I”

Answer 31

Mead proposed two versions of the self: the “me” and the “I.”

The “me” is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one’s social self through role-taking.

The “I” is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity. Essentially, the “me” is the social self and the “I” is one’s response to the “me.” Through socialization, individuals learn to look at the world through others’ perspectives.

Question 32

What is social capital?

Answer 32

Social capital refers to societal connections. It is of primary importance in politics, business, and community organizing. This capital can be exercised as favors, decisions, or even monetary compensation.

Question 33

What is cultural capital?

Answer 33

Cultural capital refers to the degree to which an individual has traits that allow him or her to command influence within society.

This concept is distinct from social capital, because social capital refers to connections or structures that facilitate those connections, whereas cultural capital describes factors like education, manner of speech, and style of dress.

Question 34

What is intellectual capital?

Answer 34

Intellectual capital is the knowledge set an individual possesses. The goal of education in society is, ostensibly, to transfer intellectual capital to the next generation. Many forms of upward social mobility are based upon the value of intellectual capital. For example, attending college is an exchange of financial capital for intellectual (or cultural) capital.

Question 35

Between rods and cones, which type of receptor has the higher visual acuity?

Which of the two has a higher sensitivity to light?

Answer 35

Cones perceive color and have higher visual acuity, but require greater amounts of light to function properly.

Rods are sensitive to lower light levels, but do not generate color vision. At night with diminished light, more of the brain’s visual input will come from the colorless perception of rods, thus making objects appear with less color.

Question 36

In psychology, what is the ideal self?

Answer 36

Ideal self is the person “you would like to be.”

The ideal self is the person you want to be. This person has the attributes or qualities you are either working toward or want to possess. It’s who you envision yourself to be if you were exactly as you wanted.

In contrast, self-image refers to how you see yourself at this moment in time.

Question 37

Explain the humanistic perspective of psychology

Answer 37

Within the humanistic context, the most pressing driver of human behavior is the so-called actualizing tendency, that is, the tendency to not only maintain one’s health and vitality, but also to improve oneself. Without the intervention of obstacles, people progress towards a full realization of their potential, known as self-actualization.

humanistic psychology, a movement in psychology supporting the belief that humans, as individuals, are unique beings and should be recognized and treated as such by psychologists and psychiatrists.

Question 38

How would Carl Rogers see a person being treated for mental illness?

What kind of psychotherapy did he introduce?

Answer 38

The American psychologist Carl Rogers is commonly associated with the humanistic framework. He introduced what is called client-centered or person-centered psychotherapy, in which the person being treated is not called a patient, but rather, a client, implying that person’s sound mental health. Part of this technique is unconditional positive regard, which holds that the therapist accepts the client unconditionally and empathizes with him or her, no matter what.

Rogers spearheaded the ideas of the real and ideal self. In this framework, the point of psychotherapy is to help the client sort through issues and make positive decisions regarding them, rather than make a diagnosis or provide a concrete solution for the underlying problem.

Question 39

Describe Psychoanalytic Theory / Psychodynamic Theory

Answer 39

Sigmund Freud, the “father of psychoanalysis,” developed well-known theories focused on unconscious desires. Freud’s work centered around his ideas of the id (one’s largely unconscious set of primal urges), superego (one’s sense of moral purpose), and ego (the logic-based, more conscious balance between the two). Freud put his theories into practice in psychoanalytic therapy, a process in which a psychologist or other therapist converses with a patient one-on-one to address certain mental or emotional issues.

• Sigmund Freud defined the ego as the principle which drives to please the id in realistic ways that will provide benefit (and reduce grief) in the long term. The ego has the capacity to act through the conscious mind (i.e., awareness at the present moment), the unconscious mind (i.e., processes that occur automatically in the mind and are not available to introspection), and the preconscious mind (i.e., thoughts in the mind that are typically unconscious but can be recalled if necessary).

Question 40

Sigmund Freud would most likely argue that the ego functions in which portions of the mind?

I. Conscious mind

II. Unconscious mind

III. Preconscious mind

Answer 40

I, II, and III.

Sigmund Freud defined the ego as the principle which drives to please the id in realistic ways that will provide benefit (and reduce grief) in the long term. The ego has the capacity to act through the conscious mind (i.e., awareness at the present moment), the unconscious mind (i.e., processes that occur automatically in the mind and are not available to introspection), and the preconscious mind (i.e., thoughts in the mind that are typically unconscious but can be recalled if necessary).

Question 41

Of the 4 Cluster B personality disorders, what disorder is characterized by a fixation on intentional malevolence/sadism?

Answer 41

Of the four Cluster B personality disorders, the only condition that is characterized by a fixation on intentional malevolence or sadism is antisocial personality disorder. Patients across multiple Cluster B conditions may lack empathy or disregard rules, but antisocial personality disorder is unique in that its patients may exhibit deliberate sadism.

Question 42

What are the 4 Cluster B personality disorders?

Answer 42

The Cluster B personality disorders include antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder.

Question 43

Describe stereotype threat

Answer 43

Stereotype threat occurs when individuals perceive that they are expected to perform in a certain way based on a stereotype, such as gender norms about academic performance. These individuals then unwittingly follow this pattern.

Question 44

Define the word “prescriptive” in terms of sociology

Answer 44

In sociology, prescriptive refers to what an individual believes should occur, while descriptive refers to what one perceives as actually occurring.

Question 45

Define Transference, in terms of psychology

Answer 45

Transference is the inappropriate transferring of feelings about one relationship to another. The classic example is a patient transferring childhood feelings about a parent onto their therapist.

One example of transference is when you observe characteristics of your father in a new boss. You attribute fatherly feelings to this new boss.

Question 46

What are core countries?

Answer 46

In world systems theory, nations are split into core, semi-periphery, and periphery countries on the basis of their wealth, military strength, and government institutions. Core countries are those well-developed, wealthy nations that control many resources, have powerful militaries, and have strong state institutions.

Question 47

What are periphery countries?

Answer 47

Periphery countries are dependent on core countries for capital and lack a strong centralized government.

Question 48

What are semi-periphery countries?

Answer 48

Semi-periphery countries share characteristics of core and periphery countries.

Question 49

What are personal constructs?

Answer 49

Personal constructs are beliefs about which attributes are most important in making judgments about people

Question 50

What is the difference between anchoring heuristic and adjustment heuristic?

Answer 50

Anchoring and adjustment heuristics are the same thing – they mean that we tie impressions to our earlier perceptions of people. Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving

Question 51

What is anchoring bias?

Answer 51

Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us to rely too heavily on the first piece of information we are given about a topic. When we are setting plans or making estimates about something, we interpret newer information from the reference point of our anchor, instead of seeing it objectively. This can skew our judgment, and prevent us from updating our plans or predictions as much as we should.

Question 52

Explain how external attribution and situational attribution differ from each other

Answer 52

External attribution and Situational attribution are the same thing

Question 53

Define Implicit memory and give another name for it.

Describe a unique brain structure involved in implicit memory

Answer 53

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory accounts for acquired skills and conditioned responses to circumstances and stimuli. This also includes procedural memory, which accounts for motor skills and specific physical actions. The cerebellum plays a primary role in encoding implicit memories.

Question 54

What is working memory?

Answer 54

Short-term memories last closer to 30 seconds without repetition. Moreover, the short-term memory can typically only handle about seven pieces of information at once. Short-term memory can be bolstered by various mnemonic devices.

Working memory is the element of short-term memory that allows us to consciously process and manipulate a few pieces of information. It involves an interplay between short-term memory, attention, and the executive function of the brain.

Question 55

In order to amplify the pressure exerted on the cochlear fluid at the oval window, the oval window must be:

(Choose one)

1. larger than the tympanic membrane.
2. smaller than the tympanic membrane.
3. more rigid than the tympanic membrane
4. less rigid than the tympanic membrane

Answer 55

smaller than the tympanic membrane.

Pressure is inversely proportional to the area over which a force is exerted (P = F / A). Therefore, pressure can be increased by reducing the surface area upon which the force is exerted.

In the ear, pressure is magnified by passing the force that is initially exerted upon the relatively larger tympanic membrane to the smaller surface area of the oval window. Therefore, answer choice 2 is correct.

The amplification of pressure is achieved by increasing the original force through mechanical advantage of a system of small levers called “the ossicles” and by exerting this magnified force over a smaller surface area. Any potential difference in rigidity is not a primary factor in this mechanism of amplification.

Question 56

Which of the ossicles has a footplate that acts as a piston, making contact with the cochlear fluid at the oval window?

Answer 56

This question requires knowledge of the three ossicle bones, the malleus, stapes, and incus. The stapes is the last bone of the three, and its footplate is what drives the motion of the cochlear fluid.

Question 57

The tympanic membrane is part of the _____ ear

Answer 57

The tympanic membrane is part of the outer ear.

Question 58

The round window and the oval window are part of the _____ and _____ ear, respectively

Answer 58

both of these structures are part of the middle ear

Question 59

A shared understanding of a “thumbs up” would fall under what theory?

Answer 59

Symbolic interactionism studies how people interact by using a shared understanding of certain symbols

Question 60

A sociologist is evaluating the interactions between clients and personal injury attorneys. She examines relations between rich, successful, white attorneys and low-income clients who are from immigrant families. The sociologist seeks to focus her analysis on the difficulties that arise as a result of the differing levels of wealth and status possessed by the attorneys and clients. This analysis could best be described by which sociological framework?

Answer 60

Conflict theory analyzes social interactions in terms of the conflict between the powerful and powerless, individuals with high and low status, and the rich and poor. Because the sociologist is comparing the experiences of high- and low-status individuals, conflict theory is the best framework for her studies.

Question 61

True or False: Children who are born in the US tend to show outcomes that are similar to other US-born people in the same demographic group.

Answer 61

True.

Children who are born in the US tend to show outcomes that are similar to other US-born people in the same demographic group. This demonstrates that the second-generation immigrant children have socially integrated more fully into the US culture.

Question 62

What is acculturation?

Answer 62

acculturation refers to developing the ability to interact within a dominant culture while internally preserving facets of one’s own culture of origin.

Question 63

What is a “within-subjects design”?

Answer 63

A within-subjects design occurs when all participants are exposed to every condition in a study.

It’s the opposite of a between-subjects design, where each participant experiences only one condition.

Question 64

What is a field experiment?

Answer 64

A field experiment occurs in natural conditions.

Question 65

What is the biggest difference between primary/secondary social groups and tertiary/quaternary social groups?

Answer 65

Tertiary and quaternary social groups do NOT EXIST

There are generally two levels of social groups in psychology: primary and secondary.

Primary social groups are more stable, often lifelong, relationships. They may be found in families or with childhood friends.

Secondary social groups often represent temporary relationships that are unlikely to last, such as neighbors at a temporary home or coworkers at a second job.

Question 66

When looking at the figure below, people generally perceive six horizontal rows of dots, rather than a grid of 36 dots, or vertical columns, or some other grouping.

Answer 66

The law of similarity

The gray circles are perceived to fall into one group, whereas the black circles are perceived to exist in another, due to the Law of Similarity. The Law of Similarity states that objects that are similar in some way will be perceived as belonging to a group. In this case, this similarity is of color. This creates groups that are perceived as horizontal rows of dots.

Question 67

What is the “looking-glass self”?

Answer 67

The looking-glass self is an individual’s representation of himself that is based on how others view him.

Question 68

What is Weberian stratification (a.k.a. the Three-component theory of stratification)?

Answer 68

The “three-component theory of stratification,” or “Weberian stratification,” is a framework that states that class, prestige, and power influence the way that individuals treat one another.

Question 69

What 3 variables are thought to influence the way that individuals treat one another, according to the Weberian stratification theory (three-component theory of stratification)?

Answer 69

Class, prestige, and power

The “three-component theory of stratification,” or “Weberian stratification,” is a framework that states that class, prestige, and power influence the way that individuals treat one another.