Final Notecards Flashcards
1
Q
Refers to the questions of how biological (nature) and environmental (nurture) forces impact development
A
nature nurture issue
2
Q
Development is _______
Development is _______ and ________
Development is highly ______
Development is affected by multiple ______forces
A
lifelong multidimensional multidirectional plastic interacting
3
Q
allows inferences about cause and effect because researchers use random assignment of participants into two or more conditions/groups
A
experimental
4
Q
groups of people differing in ages are studied at the same point in time or at different points in time
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cross sectional
5
Q
participants are studied repeatedly, and changes are noted as they get older
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longitudinal
6
Q
: several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies are conducted at varying times
A
sequential
7
Q
the largest portion of the mind, is the source of biological needs and desires
Always wants to lash out in childlike ways, like throwing a temper tantrum if your parent wont let you eat ice cream after school
A
ID
8
Q
the conscious, rational part of personality, redirects the id’s impulses in socially acceptable ways
Compromises in socially acceptable ways, like promising a parent that if you are allowed to eat ice cream after school, you will eat double the normal amount of veggies at dinner time
A
ego
9
Q
the conscience, represents the values of society to which one must conform
Makes one aware of what is moral and immoral in the eyes of society, like knowing its not acceptable to hit a playmate to get his toy
A
superego
10
Q
natural stimulus that produces a reflex
A
unconditioned stimulus
11
Q
natural reflex to some natural stimulus
A
unconditioned response
12
Q
– stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, now elicits a response similar to a reflex
A
conditioned stimulus
13
Q
the response to a conditioned stimulus
A
conditioned response
14
Q
always increases the occurrence of a behavior
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reinforcer
15
Q
something positive happens every time the target behavior occurs
You get a cookie every time you put your dishes in the dishwasher after dinner, so you will put your dishes away more frequently
A
positive reinforcer
16
Q
removing something negative every time the behavior occurs
When you have a headache, you take an Advil which makes the pain go away, thus you will take an Advil every time you have a headache
A
negative reinforcer
17
Q
always decreases the occurrence of a behavior
A
punishment
18
Q
taking away something positive every time the behavior occurs
When you don’t put your cloths in the hamper, your mom takes a privilege away so you will stop leaving cloths on the floor
A
negative punishment
19
Q
presenting something negative every time the behavior occurs
You are spanked every time you throw a tantrum in public so you will stop acting out in public
A
positive punishment
20
Q
segment of DNA along the length of the chromosome
A
gene
21
Q
Each form of a gene is called an
A
allele
22
Q
the proportion of the differences in a trait among a group of people that is due to genetic differences among these people
A
heritability
23
Q
our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed
A
genetic environment correlation
24
Q
when our disposition actively affects the sorts of environments we find ourselves in
Ex. Athletic well-coordinated child may play sports, child with enhanced sense of melody and rhythm may play a musical instrument
A
active genetic/environmental correlation
25
any environmental agent that causes a birth defect
teratogen
26
How severely a teratogen affects the developing baby depends on ALL 3 of these:
the _____ of exposure or dose of the teratogen
the _______ of the exposure
the _______ of the embryo or fetus
length
timing
genetic makeup
27
If a mother does not get adequate nutrition during pregnancy and does not gain the appropriate amount of weight (25-30 lbs)
The most likely negative outcome for the baby is __________
mental impairments
28
are generational changes
| Ex. In North America, people get taller with each generation
secular trends
29
mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action
When motor skills blend together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment
Ex. Control of the head and upper chest combine into sitting
Ex. Standing, stepping, and improved upright posture control combine into walking
Ex. A 10 month-old realizes that rolling over doesn’t get him very far, but then figures out how to crawl across a room to get a favorite toy
dynamic systems perspective
30
- The work that the heart is able to perform beyond that required of it under ordinary circumstances
Decreases in reserve capacity occur in late adulthood
This means that an elderly person’s maximum heart rate is lower
Ex. Even if a 60 year-old is in top shape, his/her maximum heart rated during exercise is still going to be lower than it was in his/her 20s
The heart just cant beat as fast, meaning ____________
cardiac reserve capacity
| decreased reserve capacity
31
Basically suggests that certain human abilities are innate (that we are born with them already in place)
So if a parent believes their newborn already has the capacity to understand certain things (like judging distance, perceiving if something moving towards or away, understanding of language, etc.), this would reflect the
nativist perspective
32
Very young infants are sensitive to all speech/language sounds
With age, we become more sensitive to sounds that are relevant in our own language and less sensitive to sounds that are irrelevant
Ex. Young infants can detect differences in vowel sounds of different languages that sound the same to older children and adults
But with age, we lose this ability as we become focused on learning our own language
speech perception
33
occurs when sensory receptors change their sensitivity to a stimulus
sensory adaptiation
34
- adaptation to reduced light intensity
Like going from a well lit area to a darker area
The time it takes to adapt to changes increases as we get older
Ex. When an elderly person turns off the light in their living room, and has more trouble finding their way to the bedroom in the dark than they used to, this indicates ________________
dark adaptation
| slower dark adaptation
35
when children use their current schemes to interpret the world
This can lead to over generalizations of unfamiliar things
Ex. An 18 month-old knows what fish are and has formed a scheme that fish have fins and swim around in the water
The child goes to Sea World and sees a dolphin for the first time, and then says “Look at the fish!”
The child applied the already formed “fish” schema to the interpretation of his environment (i.e., the dolphin), assimilating the new stimulus into his schema for fish
assimilation
36
when babies stumble onto a new experience caused by the baby’s own motor activity
circular reactions
37
exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in new/novel ways to see what happens
Emerge around 12-18 months of age
Ex. A child is playing with blocks in a high chair, and begins throwing them on the ground one at a time to see how each one bounces differently
Ex. A child shoves play-dough in his/her mouth, ears, and hair to see what it feels like and then throws some on the ground just to see what happens
tertiary circular motions
38
– when children focus on one aspect of a situation (usually the most obvious) and ignore other important aspects
Ex. The child is centered on the height of the liquid in the glass
Ex. The child is centered on the length of the row of quarters
centration
39
repeating things over and over again
| Ex. Repeating a new address over and over again
rehearsal
40
grouping similar things together (chunking)
| Ex. When trying to remember state capitals, grouping all state capitals in the same region of the country together
organization
41
creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that do not belong to the same category
Ex. When trying to remember someone’s name, you associate what that person was wearing when you met them with their name (“Mary was wearing a purple jacket)
Elaboration can include any elaboration on, or expansion of the information to be remembered
elaboration
42
include the sequence of events that are supposed to happen
Children can have scripts for just about anything, going grocery shopping, eating out, visiting grandparents, packing to go on vacation, getting ready for bed, getting in the car, etc.
Ex. An 11 year-old has a script for eating in a restaurant that includes going inside, sitting next to mom, telling mom what you want to eat, eating, then leaving
scripts for events
43
depends on basic information-processing skills, ability to detect relationships among visual stimuli, speed of analyzing information, and capacity of working memory
Fluid intelligence declines early (processing speed!) starting in the 20s
One of the ways it is tested is pattern recognition:
fluid intelligence
44
skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgment, and mastery of social conventions
Gains over the life-span only declining in (very) late adulthood
Tested by asking individuals socially and culturally relevant information
Ex. What are the state capitols of Vermont and Mississippi?
Ex. What is the difference between pride and pied?
crystallized intelligence
45
the name given to the sustained rise in intelligence test scores over the past several decades
This is just a name for the phenomenon of rising IQ scores since IQ testing was invented
flynn effect
46
word meanings
ex. Mom says to Dad “Could you pass the salt dear?” 3 year-old says to Mom “But Mommy, Daddy isn’t a 4-legged brown animal!”
semantics
47
vocabulary error in which a word is applied too narrowly, to a smaller number of objects and events than is appropriate
Ex. Toddler only calls his stuffed dog toy “doggie” and doesn’t refer to his new puppy as “doggie”
underextension
48
– vocabulary error in which a word is applied too broadly, to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate
Ex. Toddler calls all vehicles (trucks, SUVs, trains, motorcycles, vans, etc.) as “car”
overextension
49
motivation to achieve goals: academic, social, financial, occupational
In childhood achievement is motivated by factors such as parenting practices, peer relationships, and personal goals (which are age related)
Ex. You don’t have the same goals in kindergarten as you do in in middle school and high school
sachievement motivation
50
In adulthood, ___________are more important in affecting achievement motivation than actual age
Ex. Adults must be in a social context that gives them both the opportunity and the motivation to achieve new life goals
social contexts
51
emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development
Id, ego, and superego parts of personality
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages
psychosexual theory
52
emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society
Emphasized the ________ that affect personality/ego development more than Freud
Believed that normal development must be understood in relation to each culture’s life situation
Suggested that child rearing can be understood only in relation to the competencies valued and needed by an individual’s society
psychosocial theory
| social factors
53
exploration without having reached commitment
Considered healthy, experimenting and exploring alternatives before settling on a choice
Ex. Trying out different majors and career choices before settling on an occupation
identity moratorium
54
commitment to values, beliefs, and goals following a period of exploration
Considered healthy, committing to a path after a period of moratorium and exploring options
Ex. After taking classes in psychology, biology, and history, you decide you want to pursue a career teaching history
identity achievement
55
– commitment in the absence of exploration
Considered unhealthy, settling on a life path without exploring options
Ex. Deciding to be a farmer or a lawyer or a politician just because your parents tell you to
identity foreclosure
56
an apathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment
Considered the most unhealthy, you are generally apathetic to exploration or settling on a life path and are not exploring options
Ex. A 30 year-old is perfectly content living in his parents home and being unemployed
identity diffusion
57
refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes
Gender typing occurs when parents or other social partners emphasize that behavior, roles, activities etc. are associated with one sex or the other
Ex. Tommy has just come to realize that he his a little boy, over the next few years, his father will teach him about all the kinds of behaviors that are expected of boys, such as playing sports, hiding emotions, and driving trucks
gender typing
58
Increase in “feminine” traits in men
| Increase in “masculine” traits in women
androgyny shift
59
morality is externally controlled
Children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences
Behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad and behaviors that result in rewards are viewed as good
Ex. A child decides not to steal a candy bar for fear of being punished
preconventional level
60
– individuals continue to regard conformity to external social rules as important, but not for reasons of self interest
They believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive relationships and social order
Ex. An individual decides not to steal a candy bar because if everyone resorted to stealing when they were hungry there would be no social order
conventional level
61
– individuals move beyond unquestioning support for their own society’s rules and laws
They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies
Ex. Stealing is viewed as wrong because it is taking something that doesn’t belong to you and that violates the owners personal rights
postconventional level
62
A variety of factors are associated with advancement to higher stages of moral development, the most important of which being the development of ____________
perspective taking skills
63
a person’s behavioral response to a situation occurs in a sequence of five steps
1) Encoding information – the way we selectively attend to and store social cues from a situation
2) Mental representations – made when the encoded cues are given a meaning and are interpreted
3) Response assessment – the mental representation evokes a behavioral response.
4) Response evaluation – the individual’s choice of whether or not to enact the accessed response
Here the individual evaluates the interpersonal, intrapersonal, instrumental, and moral consequences of the accessed response
5) Enactment – takes place when an individual selects a response and transforms it into a behavior
dodge's social information processing model
64
Dodges model would suggest that teenagers who commit violent, antisocial acts ______ interpret and process the social cues of others as being aggressive towards them
incorrectly
65
Use parent as a secure base from which to explore the room
When separated, the child may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer the parent to the stranger
When the parent returns, the child actively seeks contacts, and crying is immediately reduced
secure attachment
66
Child seems unresponsive to the parent when she is present
When parent leaves, the child is usually not upset and reacts to a stranger in much the same way as to the parent
When parent returns, the child avoids her and are slow to greet her; when picked up they do not cling to the parent
avoidant attachment
67
Before the parent leaves, the child seeks closeness to her and does not explore around the room
When the parent leaves, the child is usually distressed
When the parent returns the child is usually clingy and wants to be near her but is also angry towards the parent
If picked up by the parent may be resistant to affection and does not stop crying
resistant/ambivalent attachment
68
Usually show little to no response when the parent leaves or when the stranger enters the room
At reunion, the child shows confused, contradictory behaviors
The child may look away while the parent is holding them or may approach the parent with little emotion or depressed emotion
Most display a “dazed” facial expression
disorganized/disoriented attachment
69
A secure attachment is best defined by __________ which can vary from country to country
Ex. In Germany, parents value independence and encourage their infants to be nonclingy, thus their infants tend to show more avoidant attachment than American infants do
Ex. In Japan, parents view infant dependency as a positive thing, reflective of their collectivist culture; thus, Japanese infants rarely show avoidant attachment and more frequently show resistant attachment
cultural standards
70
– asserts that social interaction does not decline suddenly in late age, rather, that it reflects a continuing selectivity in personal relationships
Thus, the shrinking social networks of older adults are ______
Elders just aren’t as willing to spend time with people that they don’t enjoy being around
Socioemotional selectivity theory
| by choice
71
the most successful approach, involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting
Rules are clear and are explained to the child
Parents have a warm supportive relationship with the child but at the same time exercise firm, reasonable control
Parents engage in gradual and appropriate autonomy granting
authoritative
72
low acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting
Parents are cold and rejecting
To exert control, the yell, command, criticize, and threaten (“Do it because I said so!”)
Parents make decisions for the children and expect the child to accept their word unquestioningly
Child resistance is met with force and punishment
authoritarian
73
warm and accepting but uninvolved, engage in little control, and, instead of gradually granting autonomy, allow children to make many of their own decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing to
Children can basically do whatever they want (eating meals, going to bed, watching TV, etc.)
The “my little angel is just so perfect” parent…
permissive
74
– low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy
Parents are often emotionally detached and depressed, so overwhelmed by life stress that they have little time and energy for children
uninvolved
75
refers to the idea that middle-aged adults must care for multiple generations above and below them at the same time
Middle-aged adults who are simultaneously caring for both older (their parents) and younger (their children) generations
sandwich generation or the "middle generation squeeze"
76
After children “leave the nest” and parents retire
Marriages tend to become more _______
Due to the “androgyny shift” as well as to the participation of husbands in more household chores after retirement
equitable
77
In adolescence there is a _______________ for some forms of psychological disorders
Increase vulnerability for depression, anxiety, eating disorders, etc. in adolescence
However, adults are still more likely to suffer from disorders
It just may not take as much to trigger the onset of a disorder in adolescence
hieghtened vulnerability
78
the most common form of dementia, in which structural and chemical brain deterioration is associated with gradual loss of many aspects of thought and behavior
First sign of Alzheimer’s disease is typically trouble ________ and _______verbal material
alzheimer's disease
learning
remembering
79
the number of times that a cell can divide/double itself before it stops
Suggests that, in old age, a person’s cells reach the limit and can no longer duplicate, as a result cell damage can no longer be repaired and bodily systems break down
the hay flick limit
80
the experience of losing a loved one by death
bereavement
81
phase immediately following loss
| The grieving person feels numb, which is a defense mechanism that allows them to survive emotionally
numbness
82
– characterized by the grieving person longing or yearning for the deceased to return
Many emotions are expressed during this time and may include weeping, anger, anxiety, and confusion
yearning and protest
83
the grieving person now desires to withdraw and disengage from others and activities they regularly enjoyed
Feelings of yearning become less intense while periods of apathy and despair increase
disorganization and despair
84
final phase, the grieving person begins to return to a new state of “normal”
Energy levels increase, weight loss experienced during grieving may be regained, and interest to return to activities of enjoyment returns and positive memories of the deceased take ov
reorganization
85
This model suggests that a grieving adult is much like an _______ experiencing separation anxiety
infant
