FINAL FOR A&P 1 Flashcards
structures
anatomy
functions
physiology
what is the relationship between anatomy and physiology
difficult to separate; form follows function
levels of organization
chemical (atoms- molecules) cellular (skin cells) tissue (epith) organ (kidney) organ system (digestive) organism (human)
basic unit of life
cells
the existence of a stable internal environment
homeostasis
adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis
homeostatic regulation
what will happen if homeostasis is not preserved
illness or death
receives signals about changes in internal environment that causes response to reverse these changes back to the normal range
negative feedback ex. thermostat
cells and cell products organized into layers of groups that perform a relatively limited number of fxs
tissues
study of tissues
histology
cover internal and external surfaces; forms glands
epith
fill internal spaces and provide support for other tissues
connective
provide movement via contractions
muscle
conduct electrical impulses
neural
2 types of cell arrangements found in epith
microvilli and cillia
increases surface area for increase absorption and secretion
microvilli
sweep substances along epith surface
cilia
what is unique about transitional epith
transitions from thick to thin and back again as it stretches and recoils
where is transitional epith found
urinary bladder
collections of cells
glands
secretes hormones directly into interstitial fluid and/or blood
endocrine ex. pancreas
release secretions onto epith surfaces via ducts
exocrine ex. tears
function of mucus
lubrication
one unicellular exocrine gland? what does it secrete
mucous (goblet) cells; secretes mucins that w h2o forms mucus
most common conn tissue cell; make components of ground substances and fibers
fibroblasts
engulf pathogens and damaged cells
macrophages
fat cells
adipocytes
stem cells to divide and differentiate into other conn tissue cells
mesenchymal cells
3 types of cartilage
hyaline
elastic
fibro
physical barriers; line or cover body surfaces
membranes
specialized for contraction and movement
muscle tissues
striated voluntary; produce gross body movements
skeletal
striated involuntary ; only in heart
cardiac
non striated involuntary ; around hollow organs
smooth
specialized for conduction of electrical impulses
neural tissue
how is skeletal muscle an organ
skeletal muscle tissue
conn tissue
nerves
blood vessels
produce skeletal movement maintain posture and body position support soft tissues guard entrance and exits maintain body temp store nutrient reserves
fx of skeletal muscular system
bundle of fascicles
muscle fibers
continuation of collagen fibers of conn tissue coverings beyond end of muscle; cordlike
tendon
similar to tendon but is a broad sheet of ct that attaches a broad, flat muscle to another muscle or to several bones
aponeurosis
muscle fibers cell membrane
sarcolemma
cytoplasm
sarcoplasm
tubes continuous with sarcolemma and contain extracellular fluid and form passages ways thru the muscle fiber
t tubules
tubular network that cover each myofibril
sarcoplasmic reticulum
2 kinds of protein filaments found in myofibrils.
actin and myosin
thin filaments
actin
thick filaments
myosin
thin filaments slide toward center of sarcomere; alongside the thick filaments
sliding filament theory
all the muscle fibers controlled by one motor neuron
motor unit
what determines the size of the motor unit
how fine the control of movement can be
Which of these have all-or-none contractions? muscle fiber, motor unit, entire muscle?
muscle fiber
if it contracts at all it will contract completely
all or none
muscle shorten when contracted
isotonic
muscle contracts but doesn’t change length
isometric
reuqires o2
aerobic metabolism
occurs in mitochondria
aerobic
occurs in sarcoplasm
anaerobic
end produces 2 atp
anaerobic
end produces 36 atp
aerobic
short term form of glucose
glycogen
how is glycogen used in the process of atp generation and storage
glucose turns into glycogen as needed
what causes lactic acid
mitochondria make as many atp as they can but isn’t enough since theres not enough o2 to sustain aerobic metabolism
what happens when lactic acid accumulates
may inhibit muscles to continue contracting
what happens to lactic acid during the recovery period
turns into pyretic acid and then to glucose
where does the recovery period of a muscle occur
in the liver
amount of o2 needed to restore normal conditions
oxygen debt
Explain the significance of the heat that is produced with muscle contractions.
w increase activity more heat is released and body temp climbs
fast twitch fbers
fast fibers
white fibers
fast
slow twitch fibers
slow fibers
red muscle fibers
slow
why is slow red
more o2 to muscle fiber
muscle hemoglobin
myoglobin
where is myoglobin
in blood
cells are bound together and contractions move from cell to cell in a wave
peristalsis
immoveable/fixed end; usually connected to a bone
origin
moveable end
insertion
prime mover; muscle responsible for most of movement
agonist
muscle who’s action oppose against; responsible for movement in opposite direction
antagonist
muscle that assist agonist; makes agonist more efficient
synergist
2 divisions of the nervous system
central and peripheral
brain and spinal cord
central ns
cranial and spinal nerves
peripheral ns
two types of effectors
muscles and glands
brings sensory info to cns from receptors
afferent division
carries motor commands from cns to effectors
efferent division
controls skeletal muscle contractions
somatic ns
provides automatic regulation of smooth muscle cardiac muscle and glands
autonomic ns
2 components of the efferent division
somatic and autonomic
What is unique about a neuron’s nucleus?
doesn’t divide
short extensions from cell body and receives info from other neurons
dendrites
long slender cylindrical process w uniform diameter that conducts impulses away from cell
axon
poorly understood
anaxonic neurons
relay info about sight, smell, or hearing
bipolar neurons
carry info/senses into cns
unipolar neurons
control skeletal muscles
multipolar neurons
glial cell; supporting cells within nervous tissue
neuroglial cells
outnumber neuron cells
neuroglial
myelinate axons
regulate interstitial environment
PNS of neuroglial cells
act as phagocytes
provide structural framework for neural tissue
help secrete and monitor composition of csf
control interstitial environment within cns
myelinate cns axon
CNS of neuroglial cells
Name the 2 types of neuroglial cells that myelinate axons
oligodendrocytes
schwann cells
Describe how these neuroglial cells cover the axon. What do they form?
cell processes wrap themselves many times around axon to form many layers along the length of an axon
small gaps in axon covering between cells
nodes of ranvier
contrast the structure of white matter and gray matter in the CNS.
white matter is myelinated
gray matter isn’t
changes in the transmembrane potential that can’t spread far from the site of stimulation
graded potentials
propagated changes in the transmembrane potentials that, once started, affect an entire membrane
action potential
nerve impulse
action potential
pushing handle down just enough action
threshold
which one if faster continuous or saltatory and why
saltatory because it is myelinated (doesn’t hit every spot on the surface of the axon)
explain the role of calcium ions in a synapse.
enter the synaptic knob, triggering exocytosis of neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
chemicals released by one neuron to affect the transmembrane potential of another
neurotransmitter
2 classes of neurotransmitters
excitatory and inhibitory
causes depolarization and promote generation of action potentials
excitatory
causes hyper polarization and suppress generation of action potentials
inhibitory
2 enlargements of the spinal cord
cervical and lumbar
2 longitudinal grooves of the spinal cord
posterior mediam sulcus
anterior median fissure
supplies nerves to shoulder and arms
cervical
supplies nerves to pelvis and legs
lumbar
how many segments in the spinal cord
31
what comes out of each segment in the spinal cord
spinal nerves
what is contained within a dorsal root ganglion.
cell bodies of these neurons
functions of the nerve roots from the spinal cord
form spinal nerves
how do the spinal nerves get out of the vertebrae
thru intervertebral foramen
what happens after the spinal nerves pass thru the vertebrae
branch and form peripheral nerves
provide physical stability
shock absorption
carrry bloode vessels to deliver nurtients and o2
spinal meninges
between bones and soft tissue of cord and brain
spinal meninges
very tough; epidural space
dura mater
middle layer; subarachnoid space
arachnoid mater
inner layer thats firmly bound to neural tissue underneath
pia mater
What is the subarachnoid space filled with and what is its function?
CSF; shock absorber and diffusion of nutrients
fluid that is within the central canal
csf
region of the skin surface thats monitored by a single pair of spinal nerves
dermatomes
damage or infection of a spinal nerve or dorsal root ganglion will produce a characteristic loss of sensation to its corresponding region of the skin
importance of dermatomes
complex interwoven networks of nerves
nerve plexus
rapid, automatic responses to specific stimuli
reflexes
preserve homeostasis by making rapid adjustments in the fx of organs or organ systems
reflexes
those processed in spinal cord
spinal reflexes
those processed in brain
cranial reflexes
4 major brain regions
cerebrum
cerebellum
dicencephalon
brainstem
the 4 major parts of the diencephalon
thalamus
hypothalamus
pituitary
pineal
3 parts of the brain stem
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
4 connected chambers within cerebral hemispheres and brain stem
brain chambers
what are brain chambers filled with
csf
where CSF is located within the nervous system
between ventricles, central canal and subarachnoid space
cushions cns structures
supports brain
transports nutrients
csf
secreted by tiny masses of specialized neuroglial cells and capillaries; project into ventricles and empty
formation of csf
all communications between brain and spinal cord
medulla oblongata
centers that control respiratory rate and depth
pons
helps maintain consciousness and alertness
midbrain
secretes melatonin
pineal gland
secretes many hormones
pituitary gland
central relay point for incoming sensory info and channels them to appropriate regions of cerebral cortex for interpretation
thalamus
subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions
hypothalamus
controls heart rate
bp
respiration
digestive fxs
hypothalamus
establishes emotional states and expressions; links conscious intellectual fxs of the cerebral cortex with the unconscious
limbic system
largest region of the brain that has two cerebral hemispheres
cerebrum
thin blanket of gray matter that covers cerebrum
cerebral cortex
what hemisphere is the general interpretive area and speech areas found
left side
emotion
identification of objects
spatial visualization
right side
performs analytical tasks
general interpretive and speech centers
language based skills
left side
structures that allow the 2 hemispheres to “mix”.
corpus callosum and anterior commissure
how many cranial nerve pairs are there
12
adjusts our basic life support system (homeostasis) without conscious control
autonomic ns
Provide several examples of visceral effectors of the ANS
cardiac muscle
smooth muscle
glands
adipose tissue
2 divisions of ans
sympathetic
parasympathetic
fight or flight
sympathetic
rest and digest
parasympathetic
2 types of receptors
general senses
special senses
temp pain touch pressure vibration and proprioception
general senses
info sent to primary sensory cortex
general senses
olfaction vision gustation equlilbrium hearing
special senses
info sent to specific areas of cortex
special senses
reduction in sensitivity in the presence of a constant and painless stimulus
adaptation
difference between somatic and visceral receptors
difference of location
temp
thermoreceptors
pain
nociceptors
physical distortion
mechanoreceptors
chemical concentration
chemoreceptors
function of nociceptors
protection
Nocioceptors are sensitive to what 3 items
temp extremes
mechanical damage
dissolved chemicals
nociceptor adaptation
little to none peripheral adaptation (don’t get used to pain)
2 chemicals released by the CNS in response to excessive pain.
enkephalins and endorphins
detect touch pressure and vibration
tactile receptors
detect pressure changes in blood vessels and portions of digestive, respiratory and urinary tracts
baroreceptors
monitor position of joints, tension in tendons and ligaments and the state of muscular contraction
proprioceptors
3 types of mechanoreceptors
tactile
baroreceptors
proprioceptors
sense of smell
olfaction
the location of the olfactory receptor cells
nose
Explain why olfaction is connected to emotions and memories
info to the hypothalamus and limbic system explains emotional and behavioral responses and memories triggered by certain smells
the effect of aging on olfaction
receptor number decreases and remaining receptors become less sensitive w age
sense of taste
gustation
6 taste sensations
sweet salty sour bitter umami water
Explain why and which certain taste sensations are triggered more rapidly than others
threshold for stimulus varies; respond more to unpleasant than pleasant
effects of aging on taste
decrease taste buds
palpabrae
eyelids
blinking
eyelids
soft tissue in corner of eye that makes eye boogers
lacrimal caruncle
epith covering of inner surfaces of eyelids and outer surface of eye
conjunctiva
secretes tears
lacrimal apparatus
prevents bacterial infection via antibacterial enzymes
lysosome
decrease friction and remove debris
tears
3 layers/tunics of the eye
outer fibrous layer
intermediate vascular layer
inner neural layer
in the fibrous layer thats the white of the eye
sclera
fibrous layer thats the window of the eye
cornea
how the iris and pupil react to light
iris- controls light intensity
pupil- opening that lets light pass through
inner lining of eyeball and has 2 layers
retina
Why is the fovea centralis the site of the sharpest vision?
no rods
Identify the structure and explain why we have a blind spot
optic disc; there are no receptors here
between cornea and lens and beside lens
anterior cavity
filled w aqueous humor
anterior
stabilizes shape of eye
posterior cavity
filled with vitreous humor
posterior
focus visual images on the photoreceptors via changing shape
acoomodation
lens loses transparency; becomes cloudy and opaque
cataract
one or more types of cones are nonfunctional
color blindness
very sensitive to light
rods
see only general outlines
rods
why only general outlines
rods nerve fibers converge and trasmit impulses to brain on same nerve fiber
sharp images and fine detail
cones
visual pigment
rhodopsin
in rod
rhodopsin
bright light
rhodopsin decomposes
dim light
rhodopsin is regenerated faster than its broken down
3 types of cone
red blue green
collects and directs sound waves
external ear
collect sound waves and transmit them
middle ear
contains sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium
internal ear
pinna
auricle
auditory canal
external acoustic meatus
eardrum; vibrates with incoming sound waves
tympanic membrane
glands in skin of external acoustic meatus
ceruminous glands
ear wax
cerumen
middle ear; permits equalization of pressures on either side of tympanic membrane
auditory tube
allow microorganisms into middle ear
otitis media
3 ossicles
malleus incus stapes
identify where, in the brain, equilibrium information is sent.
cerebellum and cerebral cortex
primary ossification center
central region
secondary ossification center
epiphyses
appositional growth
bones grow in width
skeletal muscle fibers
muscle cells
quite different than typical cell and are enormous
skeletal muscle fiber
neurotransmitter involved in muscle contractions
ach
