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BIO 111 > FINAL EXAM REVIEW > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM REVIEW Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the progression of parts used in the human circulatory system?

A

Arteries –>Arterioles–>capillaries–>Venules–>veins

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2
Q

What are Arteries?

A

-They are vessels that lead AWAY from the heart

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3
Q

What are Veins?

A

-They are large vessels leading INTO the heart

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4
Q

What are arteries and veins connected by?

A

-Capillary bed= where gas & fluid are exchanged

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5
Q

What are the 2 bodily circuits

A
  • Pulmonary

- Systemic

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6
Q

What is the role of the Pulmonary Circuit?

A

-It is the route of blood to the lungs and back

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7
Q

What is the role of the systemic circuit?

A

-It is the route of blood to the tissues and back

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8
Q

What is the gas exchange like in the lungs (PO2 and PCO2)?

A
  • The PO2 in the air is higher than the PO2 in lungs so O2 enters the blood from the air
  • The PCO2 in the lung capillaries is higher than the PCO2 in the air so CO2 moves from lung capillaries into the air
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9
Q

What is PO2?

A

-The pressure of oxygen

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10
Q

What is PCO2?

A

-Pressure of carbon dioxide

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11
Q

What is gas exchange like in the tissues?

A
  • O2 is used to lower the PO2 which forces the O2 from the capillaries into the tissues
  • CO2 is generated by tissues= higher PCO2 which forces the CO2 from tissues into the capillaries
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12
Q

How is the soluability like of O2 in water?

A

-Relatively low

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13
Q

What shape is the hemoglobin O2 binding curve and what does it mean?

A

-Sigmoid shaped which means that there is cooperative O2 binding

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14
Q

How many O2 molecules can bind to hemoglobin?

A

4= one for each globin chain/ heme group

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15
Q

What does cooperativity mean in terms of O2 binding to hemoglobin?

A
  • The first O2 is slower to bind than the ones after it

- The last O2 also binds more slowly bc there’s only one space left for it to bind

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16
Q

What occurs when the first O2 binds to hemoglobin?

A

-It changes the shape=Allosteric Interactions of the molecule so that the 2 O2 molecules that bind after it bind easily & makes the hemoglobin the Allosteric protein

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17
Q

Are all Allosteric Interactions cooperative?

A

-NO

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18
Q

What is the hemoglobin like in fetuses & llamas?

A

-It has a binding curve that is left-shifted

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19
Q

What does the left-shifted curve in hemoglobin result in?

A

-Saturation of lower PO2= adaptation to lower O2 environments

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20
Q

What are the 2 types of conducting tissues in plants?

A
  • Xylem

- Phloem

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21
Q

What is the Xylem tissue made of?

A

-It is dead=consists of Tracheids

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22
Q

What are Tracheids?

A

-They are cells that die which leaves only hollow tubes made up of cell wall material

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23
Q

What is Phloem tissue made of?

A

-It is made up of alive sieve cells

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24
Q

How do plants move water?

A

-VIA water potential= pumping ions across the membrane

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25
Q

How does water always flow in plant transport?

A

-From areas of high to areas of low water potential

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26
Q

What are the 2 pathways that allow water to enter the root?

A
  • Symplast

- Apoplast pathways

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27
Q

What is the Apoplast pathway like?

A
  • It’s passive and non-selective
  • Water diffuses between cells by capillary action through the spaces between the cell walls=inhibition
  • Water doesn’t enter through the cells=doesn’t even involve the xylem
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28
Q

What is the Apoplast pathway prevented from reaching?

A

-It can’t reach the stele bc the casperian strip is there

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29
Q

What is the Casperian Strip?

A

-It is a region of the cell wall that has hella hydrophobic substance which seals off the stele

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30
Q

Which water conduction pathway makes it to the Xylem?

A

-The symplast pathway

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31
Q

What is the Symplast pathway like?

A
  • Minerals are actively transported across the membrane due to changes in water potential
  • It enforces selectivity in mineral uptake
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32
Q

How does water and minerals move in between cells once they make it across the membrane?

A

-Via plasmodesmata= allows the flow of cytoplasm in between the cells

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33
Q

How can water move between Apoplast and Symplast pathways?

A

-By just crossing the membrane

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34
Q

How does water move up the xylem?

A

-Via tension & cohesion

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35
Q

How is water lost from the leaf?

A

-Transpiration= creates tension in the column of water in the xylem

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36
Q

How can we tell that water is being pulled up the xylem?

A

-The transpiring diameter of the xylem is less than the non-transpiring diameter= causes the xylem to collapse slightly

37
Q

What will happen if we were to puncture the Xylem when water is being pulled up in it?

A

-Water doesn’t squirt out SO the level falls as the diameter of the xylem increases due to the lack of tension

38
Q

What part of the plant controls gas exchange?

A

-The stomata

39
Q

What is the Stomata made of?

A

-2 guard cells= their shape changes w/ water content

40
Q

What happens when the Guard Cells are full of water?

A

-The stomata opens

41
Q

What happens when the Guard Cells don’t have enough water?

A

-The stomata is closed

42
Q

How does the plant respond when soil moisture is low?

A

-It produces Abscisic acid= causes guard cells to lose water and stomata to close

43
Q

How are plants mediated when they are actively photosynthesizing?

A

-The sensing system ties the level of CO2 to the state of the stomata

44
Q

How does the sensing system work when mediating photosynthesis in the plant?

A
  • When CO2 levels are low, K+ is actively transported into the Guard Cells. This transport lowers Ys in guard cells & allows them to take up the water= opens stomata
  • This process is reversed in plants w/ higher CO2 levels
45
Q

When are CO2 levels low in a plant?

A

-When the plant is actively photosynthesizing

46
Q

What is the main difference between transport in the phloem and in the xylem?

A

-Phloem needs the participation of cells at both ends of any transport events

47
Q

How does photosynthesis affect the Phloem?

A

-The photosynthetic sugars are actively transported in phloem which reduces its water potential which then builds up pressure= creates areas of higher pressure in photosynthetic areas & reducing it in non-photosynthetic areas

48
Q

What are the 2 organizing principles in Physiology?

A
  • Organisms show a hierarchical organization going from cells to tissues to organs to organ systems
  • Organisms show homeostasis
49
Q

What is the organizing principle of organisms having hierarchial organization?

A

-The organization leads to emergent properties where higher levels show more characteristics than the lower levels (epidermis)

50
Q

What is homeostasis principle of organisms?

A

-Allows organisms to maintain a constant internal environment despite the external environment changing

51
Q

What happens when the levels rise above the set point in homeostasis?

A

-There is a lowering in response

52
Q

What happens when the levels plunge below the set point in homeostasis?

A

-There is a raising response

53
Q

What are hormones?

A

-They are chemicals secreted by endocrine cells/ glands into the blood for transport to a distant target

54
Q

When are hormones the most effective?

A

-At extremely low concentrations

55
Q

What must the cell have in order to generate response in the cell?

A

-Receptors to the specific hormone (membrane-bound or intracellular)

56
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamus to regulate hormones?

A
  • It integrates information about the physiological state of the organism
  • It also generates the inhibiting/ releasing hormone and nerve signals to the pituitary
57
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located?

A

-underneath the hypothalamus and consists of anterior and posterior lobe

58
Q

What is the posterior pituitary gland?

A

-It is part of the CNS and connected to the hypothalamus by axons from the hypothalamus

59
Q

What is the role of the posterior pituitary gland?

A

-It receives neurohormones by the hypothalamus and stores them until needed

60
Q

What is the anterior pituitary gland?

A
  • NOT part of CNS

- It is formed from an upgrowth of tissue from the palate

61
Q

What is the role of the anterior pituitary gland?

A

-It receives hormonal signals from the hypothalamus & then will secrete additional hormones that it made. these hormones are intended to regulate the variables the hypothalamus assessed

62
Q

What are stress hormones?

A
  • Helps me mobilize my energy stores and increase efficiency in responsiveness
  • Their secretion is increased when i’m exposed to stressors like demands/threats
63
Q

Where are stress hormones produced?

A

-In the adrenal gland on the kidney

64
Q

What steroid hormone does the cortex produce?

A

-Cortisol= acts over longer time scale

65
Q

What non-steroid hormone does the medulla produce?

A
  • Epinephrine (adrenaline)

- Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

66
Q

What is Adrenaline involved in?

A

-generating fight or flight responses= causes increase in heart/ respiratory rate, increase in blood pressure, decrease in digestive rates, increase in blood glucose levels

67
Q

What is Cortisol involved in?

A
  • Increase mobilization of energy stores in fat, muscle, and bone
  • It suppresses the immune system function & reproduction
68
Q

How does your body regulate blood sugar?

A

-By the action of antagonistic hormones

69
Q

What is the role of the hormone insulin?

A

-Acts to lower blood sugar by causing cells to take up glucose convert it to glycogen and reduce the rate of glucogenesis in the liver

70
Q

What is the role of the hormone glucagon?

A

-It acts to raise blood sugar by causing cells to convert glucagon to glucose which increases the rate of glucogenesis

71
Q

How does the hormone insulin work?

A

-It acts as a catalytic receptor

72
Q

How does the hormone Glucagon work?

A

-it binds to membrane receptors and initiates signal transduction cascades

73
Q

How can the blood sugar regulation be overridden by the stress of extreme circumstances?

A

-It can be overridden by the action of adrenaline

74
Q

How does Adrenaline work to override blood sugar regulation?

A

-it binds to a G-protein coupled receptor that acts through the effector adenylyl cyclase to activate PKA

75
Q

What happens to the PKA after it been activated by Adrenaline?

A

-It phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase and then phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase

76
Q

How is glucose secreted?

A

-After glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose units off the glucose polymer which then adds a phosphate in the process of releasing glucose-1-phosphate

77
Q

What is the constant level that Ca++ maintained in blood plasma?

A

10 mg/ml

78
Q

What role does Ca++ play?

A

-It is an important signaling molecule that’s essential for cell regulation

79
Q

How is the level of Ca++ maintained?

A

-It is controlled by 2 hormones that have antagonistic properties= Calcitonin and Parathyroid

80
Q

What is the role of Calcitonin in maintaining the Ca++ level?

A

-It decreases plasma Ca++

81
Q

What is the role of Parathyroid in maintaining Ca++ levels?

A

-It increases Plasma Ca++

82
Q

When does sex differentiation occur?

A

-6 weeks post-fertilization

83
Q

What reproductive structures form in males 6-weeks post-fertilization?

A

-Wolffian ducts

84
Q

What reproductive structures form in females 6-weeks post-fertilization?

A

-Mullerian ducts

85
Q

What do the Wolffian ducts to the Mullerian ducts?

A

-They inhibit the mullerian ducts when sertoli cells in the testes secrete Mullerian Inhibiting Substance (MIS)

86
Q

What are endocrine disruptors?

A

-They are chemicals in the environment that interfere with normal endocrine signaling bc they mimic steroid hormones

87
Q

What are examples of endocrine disruptors?

A
  • BPA

- DES

88
Q

What happens when males are exposed to endocrine disruptors during development?

A

-It causes males to have femininized reproductive organs, undescended testes,and abnormal development of the penis and urethra

89
Q

What happens when females are exposed to endocrine disruptors during development?

A

-Causes abnormal development in the reproductive tract= causing T-shaped uterus and an increased risk of developing uterine and cervical cancer

BIO 111 (20 decks)

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