Final exam Flashcards
What is anatomy?
The systematic/scientific study of body structure.
What is physiology?
The scientific study of body function
What are the subdivisions of anatomy?
Gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and developmental anatomy.
Gross anatomy is also called…
Macroscopic
What is gross anatomy?
The study of structure where you don’t need any instruments, you can use the naked eye.
What are 3 subdivisions of gross anatomy?
Regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, and surface anatomy.
What is regional anatomy?
The study of structures which are belonging to any particular region.
What is systemic anatomy?
The study of structures that belong to a particular system.
What are the subdisciplines of physiology?
Neurophysiology, endocrinology, and pathophysiology.
What is neurophysiology?
The physiology of the nervous system.
What is endocrinology?
The physiology of hormones.
What is pathophysiology?
Mechanisms of disease.
What is immunology?
The study of the immune system.
What are the 6 levels of structural organization?
Chemical level, cellular level, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organism.
What is the first level of structural organization? What is it composed of?
Chemical (molecular) level. It’s composed of atoms and molecules.
What is the second level of structural organization? What is it composed of?
Cellular level. It is composed of cells.
What is the first level of life in structural organization?
Cellular level.
What is the third level of structural organization?
Tissues
What are tissues?
Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and functions.
What is the fourth level of structural organization?
Organs
What is the fifth level of organization?
Organ systems
What is the sixth level of structural organization?
Organism
How many organ systems are there?
11
What are the 11 organ systems?
- Integumentary system
- Skeletal system
- Muscular system
- Nervous system
- Endocrine system
- Cardiovascular system
- Lymphatic system
- Respiratory system
- Digestive system
- Urinary system
- Reproductive system.
What is an organ system?
Body organs that have similar or related functions.
What are body cavities?
Cavities mean space. Spaces in the human body are called body cavities.
What cavities make up the posterior (dorsal) cavity?
The cranial cavity which houses the brain. And the spinal cavity which houses the spinal cord.
What does the dorsal (posterior) cavity consist of?
Cranial cavity and spinal (vertebral) cavity
What does the ventral (anterior) cavity consist of?
Thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
What is metabolism?
Internal chemical reactions.
What is responsiveness??
Ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritability or excitability)
What is movement?
Movement of an organism and/or of substances within the organism.
What is development?
Differentiation and growth
What is reproduction?
Producing copies of themselves; passing genes to offspring.
What is homeostasis?
The capacity of the body to maintain a stable internal environment in spite of fluctuating external conditions. * The ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions.
Not maintaining homeostasis will lead to _____ or ______. Further non maintaining will lead to _____.
Illness or disease. Death.
What are the components of homeostasis?
Variables, stimulus, receptors, control center, effectors, and effects.
What is a variable?
It’s a measurement; a number.
What’s a stimulus?
A change in variable; change in the number.
What is a receptor?
Specialized nerve endings which respond to the stimulus.
What do receptors do after picking up the stimulus?
They can’t do anything so they take it to the control center.
What is the control center?
The two control systems are nervous and endocrine.
Which controls system works faster, nervous or endocrine? Why?
The nervous system works faster because it uses immediate electrical impulses while the endocrine system uses hormones.
What are effectors?
Nerve signals, hormones.
What are effects?
Changes in target organs.
What are the two kinds of feedback mechanisms?
Negative and positive
What is negative feedback mechanism?
When there is a see saw effect in change. The stimulus and the effect go in opposite directions (the stimulus goes up while the effect goes down. Or the stimulus goes down while the effect goes up).
Negative feedback serves to…
Reduce an excessive response and keep a variable within the normal range.
What is positive feedback mechanism?
When there is greater change in the same direction. Both the stimulus and the effect go in the same direction (they both either go up or they both go down).
Positive feedback serves…
To intensify a response until an endpoint is reached.
What are feedback loops?
Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them, they are called feedback loops.
What is the importance of maintaining body functions? (Importance of maintaining homeostasis)
Not maintaining homeostasis will lead to illness or disease. Further non maintaining will lead to death.
What is negative feedback?
When there is a see saw effect in change. The stimulus and effect go in opposite directions. When the stimulus goes up, the effect goes down. When the stimulus goes down, the effect goes up.
What is positive feedback?
When there is a greater change in the same direction. The stimulus and effect either both go up or both go down.
What is standard anatomical position?
It’s the reference point. The body is standing or laying supine (laying down) with the head and feet facing forward, arms laying by the sides with the palms facing forward. Thumbs are away from the midline.
Directional terms: right, left
It’s always the patient’s right/left, pictures right/left, animal’s right left, etc. NOT your right/left.
Directional terms: anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal)
Anterior means the front side. Posterior means the behind or back side.
Directional terms: superior (cranial), inferior (caudal)
Superior means towards the head end. Inferior means toward the leg or tail end.
Directional terms: superficial, deep
Superficial means closer to the surface of the skin. Deep means further from the surface of the skin.
Directional terms: afferent (sensory), efferent (motor)
Afferent means coming in; bringing in sensations. Efferent means going away; taking information away.
Directional terms: ipsilateral, contralateral
Ipsilateral means same side. Contralateral means opposite side.
Directional terms: medial, lateral
Medial means any line which is closer to the midline (median). Lateral means away from the midline.
Directional terms: proximal, distal
Proximal means closer to the point of attachment. Distal means further from the point of attachment.
Directional terms; parietal, visceral
Parietal means closer to the body wall. Visceral means closer to the organs.
What are body planes?
Imaginary lines on the human body.
What are body sections?
When you make cuts along the imaginary lines.
What are the 3 body planes and body sections?
Frontal (coronal), sagittal, and transverse.
What are frontal (coronal) planes and sections?
They divide the body into anterior and posterior halves. * vertical
What are sagittal planes and sections?
They divide the body into right and left halves. *vertical
What are the 2 sagittal sections?
Midsagittal and parasagittal
What is midsagittal?
Equal right and left halves
What does parasagittal mean?
Unequal right and left halves
What are transverse planes and sections?
They divide the body into superior and inferior halves. *horizontal
How many main body cavities does the human body have? What are they?
2 main body cavities. They are anterior (ventral) cavity and posterior (dorsal) cavity.
What cavities make up the anterior (ventral) cavity?
Thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity.
What is the thoracic cavity?
It is divided into 2 cavities. The pericardial cavity which houses the heart. And the pleural cavity which houses the lungs.
What is the abdominopelvic cavity?
Bony pelvis. Divided into 4 quadrants by physicians and divided into regions by anatomists.
What separates the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity?
The skeletal muscle called the diaphragm.
What muscle separates the cranial cavity and spinal cavity?
None
The posterior cavity organs are covered by a connective tissue called…
Meninges
The right side of the diaphragm is at a slightly higher level because of the…
Liver
What major organ (viscera) is in the cranial cavity?
The brain
What major organ (viscera) is in the vertebral (spinal) cavity?
The spinal cord
What is the thoracic cavity divided into?
The pleural cavity and the pericardial cavity
What major organ (viscera) is in the pleural cavity?
The lungs
What major organ (viscera) is in the pericardial cavity?
The heart
What major organs (viscera) are in the abdominal cavity?
The digestive organs (stomach, liver small and large intestine), spleen, and kidneys
What major organs (viscera) are in the pelvic cavity?
Bladder, rectum, and reproductive organs
What is mediastinum?
The thoracic cavity is divided by a thick median wall called the mediastinum. This is the region between the lungs. It is occupied by the heart, major blood vessels connected to it, esophagus, the trachea and bronchi, and a gland called the thymus.
What are the 9 regions of the abdominopelvic cavity?
Left hypochondriac region, left lumbar region, left inguinal (iliac) region, epigastric region, umbilical region, hypogastric region, right hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, and right inguinal (iliac) region.
What are the 4 quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity?
Right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
What is the plasma (cell) membrane?
The outer limiting layer of the cell. It surrounds the cell and defines the boundaries.
What is the plasma (cell) membrane made of?
Proteins and lipids
What is cytoplasm?
Gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell.
Why are the basic parts of a cell?
The plasma (cell membrane), the nucleus, and the cytoplasm.
Describe the plasma (cell) membrane.
It is flexible, thin, 7-10nm in thickness, and a sturdy barrier between the inside and the outside of a cell.
What 2 things do you ALWAYS have to remember about plasma (cell) membrane?
Semipermeable, and fluid mosaic model
Cell membranes are semipermeable, meaning…
Molecules can move through them.
What is the nucleus?
It is the command/control center of a cell
All cells have a…
Nucleus with a few exceptions
Cells usually have 1 nuclei so they are…
Uninucleate
A cell with no nucleus is called…
Anucleate. Examples are RBC (red blood cells) and platelets.
What 2 things do you ALWAYS have to remember about plasma (cell) membrane?
Semipermeable, and fluid mosaic model
What is fluid mosaic model?
It describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components - including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates - that gives the membrane a fluid character
What is cytoplasm composed of?
Cytosol and organelles
Plasma (cell) membrane has ______ faces and _______ faces.
Intercellular faces and extracellular faces.
What are the 3 functions of the plasma membrane?
Defines cell boundaries
Governs interactions with other cells
Controls passage of materials in and out of cell.
98% of the plasma (cell) membrane molecules are…
Lipids
What are lipids?
Fats
75% plasma (cell) membrane lipids are…
Phospholipids
A plasma membrane is made up of ___ layers of _____ called the _____.
2 layers of phospholipids called the bilayer
Amphipathic molecules arranged in a bilayer means…
There is a water loving and water hating phospholipid in the same layer.
Most transmembrane (integral) proteins are…
Glycoproteins
What are the arrangements of peripheral proteins?
They do not protrude into the phospholipid layer but adhere to the inner or outer face of the membrane. They are usually tethered to the cytoskeleton.
These amphipathic molecules arrange themselves…
Into a sandwich like bilayer, with their hydrophilic phosphate-containing heads facing the water in each side and their hydrophobic tails directed toward the center, avoiding the water.
What are the 2 broad classes of protein membranes?
Transmembrane (integral) proteins and peripheral proteins
The heads on phospholipids are…
Hydrophilic
Hydrophilic means…
Water loving
The tails on phospholipids are…
Hydrophobic
Hydrophobic means…
Water hating
Phospholipids drift _____, keeping the membrane _____.
Laterally, fluid
What are the 3 lipids?
Phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids
Phospholipids make up ___ of the membrane layer.
75%
Cholesterol makes up ___ of the membrane layer.
20%
Glycolipids make up ___ of the membrane layer.
5%
What does cholesterol do?
They hold phospholipids still and can stiffen the membrane.
Cholesterol looks like…
4 ring-like structures linked.
Cholesterol are _____ in between the ________.
Wedged, fatty acid tails
____ of cholesterol needed for all cells is created by the _____.
85%, liver
Glycolipids are only found on…
The extracellular surface of a cell
Glycolipids are…
Nothing but sugars attached to liquid.
Glycolipids are attached to…
The fatty acid tails
Glycolipids look like…
Tree branches. 8 ring-like structures linked.
Glycolipids + glycoproteins =
Glycocalyx
What is glycocalyx?
Carbohydrate coating on cell surface. It helps with understanding.
What is the body structure of lipids (fats)?
Glycerol with 3 fatty acid tails
Phospholipids have ___ fatty acid tails and a ______
2, phosphate
Proteins are the ________ of any cell.
Functioning units
What are glycoproteins?
Integral or transmembrane proteins
What do glycoproteins do?
Penetrate the membrane.
What is the main job of peripheral proteins?
Structural support
Function of the membrane proteins include:
Receptors, enzymes, channels, carriers, cell-identity markers, and cell-adhesion molecules.
What are the function of receptors?
They bind chemical signals. Allows chemical to sit.
What are the functions of the enzymes?
They speed up a chemical reaction. They are not destroyed in the process.
What are the functions of channel proteins?
They allow hydrophilic particles and water to come in and out of the membrane.
What are the functions carrier proteins?
They bind solutes and transfer them across membrane. Transport heavier molecules like glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones.
What are the functions of cell-identity markers?
They are glycoproteins acting as identification tags. It distinguished the body’s own cells from foreign cells.
What are the functions of cell-adhesion (linkers) markers?
They mechanically link cell to extracellular material.
What is a permeable membrane?
A membrane that allows all substances to pass through.
What is a selectively permeable membrane?
A membrane that allows some substances to pass through while excluding others.
What is an impermeable membrane?
A membrane that doesn’t allow any substance to pass through.
What is extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Includes any fluid outside of cells.
What are some examples of extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Tissue (interstitial) fluid, blood plasma, lymph, and cerebrospinal fluid. Blood is also an ECF.
What does extracellular mean?
Situated or occurring outside of a cell.
What is interstitial fluid?
Fluid found in the spaces around cells.
What is the function of interstitial fluid?
It helps bring oxygen and nutrients to cells and removes wast products from cells.
What does intercellular mean?
Situated between or among the cells.
What does intracellular mean?
Within the cell.
What is intracellular fluid?
It is the cytosol within the cell.
What are the arrangements of transmembrane (integral) proteins?
They pass completely through the plasma membrane. They are embedded within the plasma membrane. They go through both layers.
What is cholesterol?
Weakly amphipathic. Holds phospholipids still and can stiffen membrane. Look like 4 ring-like structures linked.
Leakage ion channels are…
Always open, specific, more leakage ion channels for potassium than sodium (K>Na)
What do ligand (chemical)-gated channels do?
Respond to chemical messengers
What do voltage-gated channels do?
Respond to charge changes
What do mechanically-gated channels do?
Respond to physical stress on cell; respond to a mechanical stimulus
Channel proteins are crucial to ______ and ______ function
Nerve, muscle
Describe membrane fluidity
Phospholipids drift laterally from place to place, spin on their axis, and flex their tails. These movements keep the membrane fluid.
What does membrane permeability mean?
Diffusion through a membrane depends on how permeable it is to its particles.
What is a concentration (chemical) gradient?
When there is a difference in the concentration/the number/the amount of substances
What is an electrical gradient?
When there is a difference in charges (positive and negative charges).
What is an electromagnetic gradient?
When a molecule moves on the bases of concentration of the chemical and charge
What are gradients?
Gradients are change. They are part of membrane transport
What is membrane transport?
The movement/transport of materials across the plasma membrane of any cell.
Movement down the concentration gradient means…
it goes from high concentration to low concentration and energy (ATP) is not used.
Movement against the concentration gradient means…
It goes from low concentration to high concentration and energy (ATP) is used.
What are the 3 types of passive transport?
Diffusion, osmosis, and filtration.
What is simple diffusion?
Movement of particles from a region of higher to a region of lower until an equilibrium is reached. No ATP (energy). Particles must be small size and lipid soluble.
What is facilitated diffusion?
The carrier-mediated transport of a solute through a membrane down its concentration gradient. It requires no ATP (energy) by the cell. It transports solutes such as glucose that cannot pass through the membrane unaided.
What is membrane potential?
Charge separation happening on either side of the plasma membrane. Positive on the outside, negative in the inside.
The rate of diffusion is affected by:
Temperature
Molecular weight
“Steepness” of concentration gradient
Membrane surface area
Membrane permeability
Diffusion affected by temperature
Higher the temp, faster the rate of diffusion
Diffusion affected by molecular weight (size of molecule)
Greater the molecule size, slower the rate of diffusion
Diffusion affected by “steepness” of concentration gradient
Greater the steepness (difference), faster the rate of diffusion
Diffusion affected by membrane surface area
Greater the surface area, greater the diffusion
Diffusion affected by membrane permeability
Greater the membrane permeability, faster the rate of diffusion
What is osmosis?
Movement of water from a region of high to a region of lower water concentration through a semipermeable membrane.
What is a solute?
Particle
What is a solvent?
Water
Solute + solve =
Solution
What is filtration?
Particles are driven through membrane by physical pressure. Occurs in the blood vessels.
What are the 3 types of active processes?
Primary, secondary, and vesicular.
What is primary transport?
Sole user of energy.
What is an example of primary transport?
Na K ATPase pump
What is secondary transport?
It is dependent on the primary. If the primary doesn’t do its job, then the secondary cannot work.
What is an example of secondary transport?
Sodium Glucose Transporters (SGLT)
What is vesicular transport?
Moves large particles or numerous molecules at once through the membrane, contained in bubble-like vesicles of the membrane.
What is kinetic energy?
Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of its motion.
What is the role of kinetic energy in diffusion?
Diffusion is driven by kinetic energy.
What is the difference between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?
Simple diffusion allows the direct transport of molecules across the cell membrane. In contrast, facilitated diffusion occurs via transmembrane proteins like carrier proteins and channel proteins.
What is osmolarity?
The total number of nonpermeating solutes/particles in solution
What is tonicity?
The capacity of the solution to change the volume and shape of any cell.
What is an isotonic fluid?
No change in the volume or shape of any cell.
What is hypotonic fluid?
More water, less solutes.
What is hypertonic fluid?
More solutes, less water.
What does crenated mean?
Water has come out. Cell looks like it has spikes.
What does hemolysis mean?
When red blood cells swell which causes them to rupture.
What is osmotic pressure?
The amount of pressure that would have to be applied to one side of a selectively permeable membrane to stop osmosis.
What is the function of the sodium potassium pump?
Sodium is always supposed to be on the outside of the cell. ATPase pump is 3 NA out (3 sodium out), 2 K (2 potassium in) in. The pump uses energy.
By pumping sodium out and potassium in, the Na K ATPase pump maintains…
Membrane potential
What is resting membrane potential?
When there is no big change in the membrane potential.
What is cytosol?
The solution part of the cell. This is the fluid that is found within the cell.
How much of the cell is made up of cytosol?
60%
What is the cytoskeleton of a cell?
A system of protein microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules in a cell.
What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
Serves in physical support, cellular movement, and the routing of molecules and organelles to their destinations within the cell.
What are microfilaments?
They are thin filaments that are 6 nm thick and are made of the protein actin.
What are intermediate filaments?
They are thicker and and stiffer than microfilaments.
What are the functions of intermediate filaments?
They give the cell its shape, resist stress, and form junctions that attach cells to their neighbors.
What are microtubules?
They are cylinders made up of 13 parallel strands called protofilaments.
What is the Golgi complex?
Its a small system of cisterns.
What are the functions of the Golgi complex?
It synthesizes carbohydrates and puts the finishing touches on proteins and glycoprotein synthesis.
What are ribosomes?
They are small granules of protein and RNA.
Where are ribosomes found?
They are found in the nucleoli, in the cytosol, in mitochondria, and on the outer surfaces of the rough ER and nuclear envelope.
What is a lysosome?
It is a package of enzymes bounded by a membrane.
What is mitochondria?
They are organelles specialized for synthesizing ATP.
What is a centriole?
A short cylindrical assembly of microtubules, arranged in 9 groups of 3 microtubules each.
What is a centrosome?
A small, clear patch of cytoplasm near the nucleus.
What is the endoplasmic reticulum?
It is a system of inner connected channels called cisterns enclosed by a unit membrane.
The endoplasmic reticulum can either be _______ or _______.
Rough or smooth.
What is the difference between rough ER and smooth ER?
The surface of rough ER is covered in ribosomes which makes it rough. The surface of smooth ER doesn’t have any ribosomes.
What is microvilli? What is their primary purpose?
They are extensions of the plasma membrane that serve primarily to increase cell’s surface area.
What are cilia?
Cilia are hairlike processes about 7 to 10 micrometers.
What does a nucleus contain? Which makes it what?
The cell’s chromosomes which makes it the genetic control center of cellular activity.
What is the nuclear envelope?
A pair of membranes enclosing the nucleus of the cell.
The nuclear envelope is perforated with…
Nuclear pores.
What are nuclear pores?
They are formed by a ring of proteins called the nuclear pore complex.
What are chromatin?
Fine threadlike matter composed of DNA and proteins.
What is a nucleolus?
A dark-staining mass where ribosomes are produced.
Histology
The study of tissues
What are the 4 basic tissue types in the human body?
Epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle.
Epithelial tissue ______ body surfaces and _____body cavities, forms _________, and is __________.
Covers, lines, all glands, avascular.
What are the 6 functions of epithelial tissue?
Protection, secretion, excretion, absorption, filtration, and sensation.
Protection function of epithelial tissue
Protects deeper tissues from injury and infection.
Secretion function of epithelial tissue
Produces and releases mucus, sweat, enzymes, hormones, and other substances.
Epithelial tissue excretion function
Voids waste from the tissues.
Absorption function of epithelial tissue
Absorbs chemicals, such as nutrients.
Filtration function of epithelial tissue
All substances leaving the body are selectively filtered by an epithelium.
Epithelial tissue sensation function
Nerve endings in epithelia detect stimuli.
What is connective tissue?
Most common tissue and highly variable vascular.
Loose connective tissue has ____ blood vessels
Many
Cartilage has ____ blood vessels
No
What are the 8 functions of connective tissue?
Binding of organs, support, physical protection, immune protection, movement, storage, heat production, and transport.
Binding of organs function of connective tissue
Connect one bone to another, muscles to bones, skin to muscle, and holds organs in place.
Support function of connective tissue
Supports the body and it’s organs, forms internal framework of organs.
Physical protection function of connective tissue
Protects and cushions delicate organs
Immune protection function of connective tissue
Connective tissue cells attack foreign invaders
Connective tissue movement function
Bones provide lever system for body movement
Storage function of connective tissue
Maintains stores of fat, calcium, and phosphorus.
Heat production of connective tissue
Metabolism of brown fat generates heat
Transport function of connective tissue
Blood transport gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and blood cells.
Muscle tissue is specialized to ________ when ________, exerting a ________ on other ______, ______, or ________. Also an important source of __________.
Contract, stimulated, physical force, tissues, organs, fluid. Body heat.
Excitability
Ability to respond to stimuli by changing membrane potential
What are the general features of epithelial tissue?
Avascular, basement membrane, apical surface, lateral surface, and basal surface.
Epithelial tissue is avascular meaning…
It is also _________ by the __________________.
Has no blood vessels, nourished by underlying connective tissue.
Epithelial tissue rests on the…
Basement membrane
What is epithelial basement membrane?
The basement membrane is made up of 2 layers: basal lamina and reticular lamina.
The basal lamina is made up of _____ and it is ______.
Glycoproteins and it is acellular
The reticular lamina is…
The underlying connective tissue attached to the basal portion.
What is the apical surface of epithelial?
It faces away from the basement membrane (faces the lumen). The apical portion is free.
The apical surface has these fingers called…
Microvilli
The microvilli have eyelash looking things called…
Cilia
You only see sodium glucose transporters at the…
Apical portion
What is the lateral surface of epithelial? It is also called _______.
The surface between the basal and apical surfaces. Its called the “sidewall”.
What is the basal surface of epithelial?
It faces the basement membrane. The basal portion is attached.
You only see Na K ATP pump at the…
Basal portion.
Contrast covering and lining epithelium and glandular epithelium.
Cover and lining epithelium
Simple epithelial have how many layers?
1 layer
Stratified epithelial have how many layers?
Many layers
Pseudostratified epithelial have how many layers?
Falsely appear to have many layers, but only has 1 layer.
Simple squamous cell shapes are…
Thin, scaly cells, and nucleus is squished. They have a fried egg appearance.
Stratified squamous cell shapes are…
Deepest cells are cuboidal to columnar.
Simple cuboidal cell shapes are…
Squarish or round cells, equal length and equal width, and nucleus is round like a bead. String of bead appearance.
Simple columnar cell shapes are…
Tall, narrow cells, and nucleus is oval/elongated.
Transitional (urothelium) cell shapes look like… Why is it called transitional?
stratified squamous, but not as many layers. Topmost layer of cells change, which is why it is called transitional.
Simple squamous permits _________ or _______ of substances, and secretes _________.
Permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances, and secretes serous fluid.
Simple squamous are found in areas where ______ and _______ is required. Found in…
Diffusion and filtration. Found in capillaries, alveoli, glomeruli, and serous
Serous (visceral and parietal layer) is lined by…
Simple squamous
Stratified squamous is…
Filled with a protein called keratin which makes it waterproof and nonadhesive.
What are the two kinds of stratified squamous?
Keratinized and non-keratinized
What do keratinized stratified squamous look like?
Multiple cell layers; cells become flat and scaly towards the surface.
Function of keratinized stratified squamous
Resists abrasion, retards water lost through skin, resists penetration by pathogenic organisms.
Where are keratinized stratified squamous found?
Found on the skin surface (epidermis).
What do non-keratinized stratified squamous look like?
Same as keratinized stratified squamous, but without the surface layer of dead cells.
Non-keratinized stratified squamous function
Resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens.
Where are non-keratinized stratified squamous found?
Found on tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, and vagina.
Simple cuboidal function
Absorption and secretion, mucus production, and movement.
All glands are what kind of cells?
Simple cuboidal
Where are simple cuboidal found?
Found in liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands, bronchioles, and kidney tubes.
Simple columnar function
Absorption and secretion (secretion of mucus).
Where are simple columnar found?
They line the digestive tract (GI tract) only from the stomach to the anal canal. Also found in the uterus, kidneys, and uterine tubes.
Function of transitional (urothelium)
Allows for filling of the urinary tract
Where are transitional (urothelium) found?
Found only in the urinary tract
Endothelium is a _______ layer of _____ called __________ cells that line your ____________ and ___________. They help them ______ and ________ and aid in _________.
Single, cells, endothelial cells, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels. Contract, relax, blood flow.
Mesothelium is a layer of ____ that _____ and _______ organs and tissues in the body. Organs examples:
Cells, covers, protects * the lungs, abdomen, heart, and testes.
What is the roll of goblet cells?
Cells that make mucus. They make a protein mucin; it combines with water to make mucus. Mucin + water = mucus
Gland is a _____ or _____ that secretes substances for use __________________ or releases them for ____________________.
Cell or organ that secretes substances for use elsewhere in the body or releases them for elimination from the body.
Endocrine glands have ___ ducts but do have many ______________. They discrete _____ directly into ______.
No, blood capillaries; hormones, blood.
Examples of endocrine glands (3)
Thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands
Exocrine glands _______ their contact with _____________ by way of _____. Surfaces can be ________ or ___________.
Maintain, surface of epithelium, duct. External or internal
Example of external exocrine glands
Sweat glands, tear glands
Example of internal exocrine glands
Pancreas gland, salivary glands
Eccrine (merocrine) glands ________ their products by __________.
Release, exocytosis.
Examples of eccrine (merocrine) glands
Tear, pancreas, and gastric
Apocrine secretion is _______ droplet covered by _______ and ________ buds from cell _______.
Lipid, membrane, cytoplasm, surface.
Example of apocrine secretion
Mode of milk fat secretion by mammary gland cells
Holocrine secretion
Cells accumulate a product and entire cell disintegrates. Secretes a mixture of cell fragments and synthesizes substances.
Examples of holocrine secretion
Oil glands of scalp and skin, and glands of eyelids
General features of connective tissue
Most cells are not in contact with each other, and connective tissue has a highly variable vascularity
What is the most common tissue out of the 4 tissues types?
Connective tissue
Loose connective tissues have…
Many blood vessels
Cartilage has…
No blood vessels
Fibroblasts makes _____ for ___________________
ECM, fibrous connective tissue
Adipocyteextracellular matrix
Areolar tissue, reticular tissue, and blood capillaries
Ground substance
An unstructured material that fills the spaces between the cells. Holds water and large molecules (GAGs, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins)
Fibers give ____________ to ____ in ____
structural support, cells, extracellular matrix
Collagen are ______, _______, _________ fibers that resists ____________.
Long, thick, unbranched, stretching
Collagen is also called ________ because…
White fibers because when they are first made they are white.
Reticular tissue is similar to __________ but they are _______, ________, and they form a _______.
Collagen, thin, branched, network.
Elastic is made of a ________ called ________. They ________ which means they ________ back when ___________.
Protein, elastin. Recoil, stretch, stretched.
Elastic fibers are _____ in color so they are called ______ ________.
Yellow, yellow fibers
Areolar tissue has _______, ________, _______, and __________. They are __________ organized fibers with abundant __________.
Fibroblast, accessory cells, ECM, ground substance. Loosely, blood vessels
Where is areolar tissue found?
Found right underneath the skin (underlies epithelia), in serous membrane, between muscles, in passageways for nerves and blood vessels.
Adipose tissue is mostly made up of _______. Have a ___________ appearance (nucleus pushed to the side). Also have a _____________ appearance because it is made up of mostly adipose cells.
Fat cells. Signet ring. Chicken wire.
What are the 2 types of adipose tissue?
White (or yellow) adipose and brown adipose
White adipose tissue (WAT or white fat) is the most _________ and _________ type in _______.
Abundant, significant, adults.
Functions of white adipose tissue
Provides thermal insulation, cushions organs such as eyeballs and kidneys, secretes hormones that regulate metabolism, and provides energy storage.
White adipose tissue looks like ______-looking cells with _________. ________ pressed against cell __________.
Empty-looking, thin margins; nucleus, membrane.
Brown adipose tissue (BAT or brown fat) is mainly in…
Fetuses, infants and children up to 5 years old.
Brown adipose tissue has a rich ________ and is a ______-generating tissue.
Blood supply, heat-generating
Quantity of fat in adipose tissue gets…
Recycled continuously
Areolar tissue has __________ between the cells and the fibers
Lots of space
Areolar tissue has lots of space, so fluid comes in and sits there. It is called…
Edema
Brown adipose tissue is found in the
Anterolateral neck, anterior abdominal wall, and between the shoulder blades
Reticular tissue is made up of _________ and _________.
Reticular fibers, fibroblasts
Reticular tissue forms the ___________ for _________________
Forms framework for lymphatic organs
Where is reticular tissue found?
Found in highly vascular organs like lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow.
Dense regular connective tissue are…
Densely packed (close together), have parallel collagen fibers, and have a compressed fibroblast nuclei.
Dense regular connective tissue move…
In 1 direction
Where are dense regular connective tissue found?
They are found in tendons. Tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments hold bones together.
Dense irregular connective tissue
Fibers are pulled close by collagen fibers but are pulled in all different directions. They withstand unpredictable stresses.
Where are dense irregular connective tissue found?
Found in the deeper layer of the skin (dermis of the skin); capsules around joints and organs
Hyaline has ___________________ and no ________________.
Fine collagen fibers. No elastic fibers.
What does hyaline look like?
Clear, glassy appearance because of fineness of collagen fibers.
Function of hyaline: eases _________, holds _______ open, and moves ______ chords.
Joint movement, airways, vocal chords.
What is the most common type of cartilage?
Hyaline
All respiratory cartilages are made up of…
Hyaline cartilage
Where is hyaline found?
Found in articulate cartilage (at ends of bones, needed to reduce friction), costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, and fetal skeleton.
All bones in the embryonic skeleton below the clavicle are made up of…
Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage connective tissue contains an ________ of _______ fibers. Covered with ___________.
Abundance, elastic. Perichondrium.
